Intro Into Sport & Exercise Psychology (W1)
Online Class #1
Defining Sport & Exercise Psychology
The scientific study of people and their behaviour in sport and exercise contexts.
2 Main Objectives
1. To determine how psychological factors affects sport/exercise performance
2. To determine how sport/exercise participation affects psychological development, health and well being.
Motivation (W1)
Lecture #1 9.3.17
Motivation: “The direction and intensity of effort”
Views Of Motivation
Trait Centered View: ‘How we are in everyday life’. As a result of the values and characteristics of the individual.
Situation Centered View: ‘The superficial’ – meaning the motivation is determined by the surrounding environment.
Interactional View: A combination of the situation and inner traits.
Achievement Motivation
Striving for a specific task or goal and persist through adversity to achieve accomplishments.
Development of Achievement Motivation
2 Theories Of Achievement Motivation
Need Achievement Theory: Personality
The motivation to achieve success. (MS) = High Achievers usually are high in MS and low in MAF.
The motivation to avoid failure. (MAF) = Low Achievers usually are low MS and high in MAF.
Need Achievement Theory: Situation
Probability of success depends on competition and difficulty of task.
High Achievers = usually compete when there’s a 50/50 chance of winning.
Low Achievers = usually avoid competing when there’s a 50/50 chance of winning. They would rather opt for the task they are certain they can succeed in or the task they are certain they will fail in.
Achievement Goal Theory
3 Factors determine a person’s motivation: Achievement goals/Perceived ability/Achievement behaviour
Consequences Of Achievement Goal Theory
Task Orientated: Strong work ethic/resilience/optimal performance/reduced motivation when opponent is better
Outcome Orientated: Can’t control others -> can lower self esteem + perceived abilities -> maladaptive tendencies -> doesn’t try has ha
Attribution Theory
How people explain their successes and failures.
Attribution theory is important because it explains how people’s perceptions can influence their expectations and reasons behind why an event occurred consequently effecting their achievement motivation.
Arousal, Anxiety & Stress (w2)
Lecture #2 17.3.17 (Week 2)
Arousal
A general physiological and psychological activation that varies on a continuum. (Comatose – Intense Excitement) The “intensity” of behaviour.
Anxiety
A negative emotional state associated with feelings of nervousness, worry, IN HR.
Anxiety has a thought component – cognitive anxiety (worry & apprehension)
and a physiological component – somatic anxiety (perceived physical activation)
Trait Anxiety
A persons general activation level. How you normally are.
State Anxiety
Changing mood depending on situation/environment.
Stress
A substantial imbalance between demand (physiological/psychological) and response capability under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.
Sources Of Stress
Fear of Performance Failure: eg. losing to weaker opponent
Fear of Negative Social Evaluation: eg. fear of being evaluated by spectators, members …
Fear of Physical Harm: eg. fear of being hit by object, opponent …
Situation Ambiguity: eg. not knowing if you will start match, unclear of role …
Disruption of Well-Learned Routine: eg. being asked to change things without practice …
Perceived Importance of the Competition: eg. final …
Arousal, Anxiety -> Performance Theories
1. Drive Theory
(Spence & Spence, 1966)
Relationship between arousal and performance is direct and linear.
It may be for very simple tasks but not complex tasks.
2. Inverted-U Theory
(Landers & Boutcher, 1986)
There is a optimal arousal level where performance is at its best. Arousal facilitates performance to a point.
3. Individualised Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF)
(Hanin, 1980)
Range of optimal functioning rather than single point. Individual differences = different zones.
4. Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
(Martens et al. 1990)
As cognitive anxiety increases increases performance decreases while a little bit of somatic arousal is not too good for performance because we feel under-prepared and if we have too much arousal our attention/focus is adversely affected. So we need to have the optimal amount of somatic arousal in order to perform at our best, for this model.
5. Catastrophe Theory
(Hardy & Fazey, 1990)
Arousal related to performance ONLY when athlete has low cognitive state anxiety.
If cognitive state anxiety is high, there is threshold point at which “catastrophe” occurs
As cognitive and somatic anxiety are high we get a drop off of performance “catastrophically” and it takes a while for the athlete to recover from that slump. They do this by reducing their cognitive + somatic anxiety.
6. Reversal Theory
(Kerr, 1985)
‘Telic’ (or ‘Serious’) and ‘Paratelic’ (or ‘Playful’) and refer to whether one is motivated by achievement and future goals, or enjoyment of process in the moment
Paratelic
Goal is to increase arousal
Low levels of arousal = bored
High levels of arousal = excited
Telic
Goal is to reduce arousal
Low level of arousal = relaxed
High levels of arousal = anxiety
Best performances occur when the telics are relaxed and the paratelics are excited.
W2 Readings: Harris
1. Discuss how relaxation skills are useful to an athlete.
Relaxation skills are especially useful to athletes who have high arousal states that adversely effect their performance. By teaching relaxation techniques that incoperate diaphramtic breathing, rhythmic breathing and other various progressive relaxation exercises (contract/relax) the athelte will learn to consciously control their states of arousal and anxiety during competition to a level that support optimal peformance for them. With enough practice the athlete could get to the point where they have become so proficient in their relaxation skills that their body unconciously relaxes them upon certain stimuli.
Personality & Sport (W2)
Online Class #2
Personality
Personality is the underlying relatively stable psychological structures and processes that organise human experiences and shape a person’s actions and reactions to the environment. (Lazarus & Mowat, 1979)
“The sum total of an individual’s characteristics
which make him/her unique” (Hollander, 1971)
The Structure of Personality (Hollanders Model)
The Psychological Core
The relatively permanent parts of your character that are unlikely to change.
E.G. Quiet/Placid/Calm
Sports may bring our a much more assertive aggressive part of them due to the environment.
Typical Responses
The usual way we respond to our environment. Usually from learnt and stored experiences.\
Role-Related Behaviour
Determined by our perception of environment. So our action may not be typical of the psychological core. The most changeable aspect of personality.
Problems with Personality Structure
Associating role related behaviours rather than understanding the real person can present problems because we’re basing our assumptions and education of the person in a very linear boxed in way. Instead, trying to gather insights of the individuals uniqueness will allow us to tailor our approach which will allow for much more effective results rather than going from a set structure.
Theories/Perspectives of Personality
Historical Perspectives
Hippocrates: Personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black bile, yellow
bile, blood, and phlegm)
Phrenology: Examining the bumps on skull.
Physiognomy: Determining personality by what animal does the face
most closely resemble?
Psychodynamic Theory
Not used very much in sports application.
Personality characterised by unconscious determinants of behaviour (drives or ‘id’) and conflicts with other more conscious aspects of personality (‘ego’ and ‘superego’). If too much conflict exists between. three parts of personality, ego may have to “defend itself” (ie. defense mechanisms – eg. repression, rationalization, projection)
Trait Approach
Traits: Relatively stable and enduring characteristics which could be used to predict our behaviour in a variety of situations.
Proposes the cause of behaviuor results from the individuals traits/characteristics which could be used to predict our behaviour in a variety of situations. Traits predispose an athlete to act in a particular way (but not guarantee it).
Eysenck Trait Theory
Believed personality characteristics/traits were inherited and largely unchanging.
Introvert – Extrovert
Neuritic – Stable
Cattell’s Trait Theory
Still widely used in the context of sport.
Adopted a trait approach but proposed that personality incorporated more than 2-3 dimensions, but 16 personality factors.
Evaluation of Trait Theories
Trait approach is often too simplistic, knowing an individuals personality traits doesn’t help us to predict whether they will act on those traits. They might enable us to make some general predictions they are an unreliable predictor of human behaviour because it doesn’t take into account the situation and environment – the context.
Situational Approach
Personality is built up of our experiences of the social world. All our experiences are used to shape our personality – our personalities are a reflection of our stored memories/experiences.
We learn through modelling and reinforcement.
Modelling: Observing others around us and imitate. E.G. Lower level athlete observing higher performing athlete to intimate behaviours in order to perform better.
Reinforcement: When we are rewarded for certain behaviour we are more likely to behave in that manner.
Evaluation of Situational Theories
Still unable to explain our behaviours. Goes too far in the opposite direction of trait approach. Situation might influence our behaviour somewhat, but its still an unreliable predictor of behaviour.
Interactional Approach
Considers that behaviour is a combination of both internal personality traits and environmental factors.
Personal traits and environment independently determine behaviour BUT also interact to determine human behaviour much more accurately than traits or situations alone.
Measuring Personality
Unreconstructed Protective Tests: Used to identify motives or the deeper aspects of personality/motives. (Rarely used in sport…so why are we studying it?)
Trait/State Measures (Questionnaires): Typically have true/false or scaling type questions.
We can measure traits of the individual by asking how they would usually respond in certain situations (how you usually feel/act) as we make educated presumptions based on the answers.
E.G. Compare your confidence in your ability to execute the skills necessary to be successful with that of the most confident athlete you know.
OR
We can ask how they feel and behave in particular states (how you feel/act right now) at particular moments/situations and we can use that to better understand what impact the environment has on their behaviour.
E.G. Compare the confidence you feel right now in your ability to execute the skills necessary to be successful with that of the most confident athlete you know.
Understand Purpose Of Using Psychological Measures
Use to gather information from people that you want to assist as a person and sports performance. That’s it.
Limitations: Imperfect, high levels of measurement error (validity/reliability).
Review Questions
1. Describe the levels of personality as conceptualised by Hollander. Indicate the degree of changeability for each of these levels.
Hollander used a multi level approach that included your psychological core which described the relatively permanent parts of your character – this area was unlikely to change. Next was typical responses, which described our learned and stored experiences – this area was subject to change as we experience and learn new things. Lastly was the role-related behaviour which was determined by your perception of the environment – this was heavily subject to change based on the fluctuations of one’s ever changing perceptions.
2. Briefly summarise the trait, situational and interactional approaches to personality noting shortcomings of any of these approaches in terms of understanding/predicting behaviour?
Trait approach consisted of predicting behaviour based off the traits they inherited and developed. It assumed the cause of behaviour resulted from mostly a person’s traits and not the environment. The shortcomings of this approach was that it only took into account a person’s characteristics and not the context around their behaviour. Thus it was an unreliable source to predict behaviour because it doesn’t help us to know whether the individual will act on his traits.
Situational approach attempted to explain personality through our previous experiences. Proposing that we learn through modelling – observing and imitating other’s and reinforcement – behaving a certain way because we received some type of positive/negative stimulus to repeat or not repeat the behaviour. This was the opposite extreme of trait approach, only taking into account the context around the person, but not the traits they held which may have influenced how they perceived and acted in that environment. Therefore it is again an unreliable predictor of behaviour.
Lastly, interactional approach suggested that personality traits AND environmental factors were causes and predictors of behaviour. The holistic nature of this approach is why it’s considered much more accurate and reliable in predicting behaviour. Because it takes into account the interaction of both extremes of trait and environment it allows an even balance of analysis.
3. Describe what trait and states measures indicate and why both are needed for a better understanding of personality and athletic behaviour.
Trait measures indicate typical behaviour, E.G. how you usually feel/act. States measures show how a situation effects behaviour. E.G. How you feel/act right now. Both are needed to have a thorough understanding of the athlete because how the individual typically feels may be different to how they feel in a certain moment and situation. It’s important to distinguish and consider both in order to get a full comprehensive profile of the athletes tendencies.
4. List and briefly describe four issues that a practitioner should consider before using psychological measures with athletes.
1. Ethical considerations: informing the athlete what the test is, what it measures and why it’s being tested to get their consent. 2. Qualifications: Some tests require a certain qualification to be able to run a psychological test. 3. Consider that these measurement tools can be unreliable and inaccurate at times before taking any action from their information. 4. Being cautious not to reveal results of one athlete to another or openly compare the player profiles. + Don’t use to compare performance.
5. What are your personal views on the use of psychological inventories in sport? Should they be used or not used? Can you think of instances where these have been detrimental/harmful or situations where this might occur?
That pschological inventories can provide a lot of valuable insight in a short amount of time to an individuals psyche. I beleive they can be espeically valuable when time is constricted but stakes are high and you don’t have time to find this information through the naturall process of building repport with a team. They could be potentially harmful if the data is openly used to compare a team or group of people as people may start to resent, doubt or alienate others.
Psychological Skills Training (PST) (W3)
Online Class #3
Practical information on 10 different psychological skills: http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/performance_support/psychology/resources/brainwaves
“The systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity satisfaction”
A very large amount of the demands of sport are mental, yet how much time do athletes actually dedicate to mental practice?
The Ideal Performance State
Ravizza (1977) was one of the first sport psychologists to describe how athletes felt during their greatest moments.
Interviews of 20 male and female athletes who played in 12 different sports yielded the following characteristics:
• Loss of fear—no fear of failure
• No thinking of performance
• Total immersion in the activity
• Narrow focus of attention
• Effortless performance—not forcing it
• Feeling of being in complete control
• Time‐space disorientation (usually slowed down)
• Perceive universe to be integrated and unified
• Unique, temporary, involuntary experience
Situation in Sweden
65% of the top athletes use forms of mental training and mental preparations
Mental training programs have so far been used by over two million Swedes, which translates to 25% of the population.
All school children are supposed to receive basic mental training. Sweden was the first country (and still is the only one), which had included basic mental training into the curriculum, statewide. For the future this will mean that every Swede will have experience of mental training.
Mental training programs (muscular relaxation, self‐hypnosis, self‐image training, motivation sleep) can be acquired by everyone from every pharmacy in Sweden.
3 Phases of PST
Educational Phase
Psychological skills need to be taught and learnt.
Participants must recognise how important it is to learn these skills.
Participants must recognise how these skills affect performance.
Acquisition Phase
Focus on strategies and techniques.
Tailor training programs to meet individual needs.
Provide general information to the group or team, but be specific when developing an individual’s PST program.
Practice Phase
Learning psychological skills should progress from practices skills on its own, to simulations to actual competitions.
Focus on automating skills though overlearning.
Integrating psychological skills into training .
Simulating the skills you want to apply in competition.
Log books can be useful to help athletes chart progress and provide feedback for improvement
Self Regulation = Ultimate Goal
Self‐regulation is the ability to manage disruptive emotions and impulses, and to think before you react.
After PST an athlete should be able to monitor and selfregulate their own emotional state .
SR= the ability to work towards ones short‐ and long‐term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours
How long should training last?
10 – 15 minutes / 3‐5 days per week.
Performance Profiling
Designing a PST Schedule
Emphasises that multiple types of mental skills are important for success.
Foundation skills: intrapersonal resources that are the basic mental skills necessary for achieving success.
Performance skills: mental abilities critical to the execution of skills during performance.
Personal development skills: Mental skills that represent significant maturational markers of personal development allowing for high‐level psychological functioning through clarity of self‐concept, feelings of wellbeing, and a sense of relatedness to others.
Team skills: Collective qualities of the team that are instrumental to an effective team climate and overall team success.
Imagery (W3)
Lecture #3 (23.3.17)
Mental Practice
Cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt movement. E.G. Visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, visual motor behaviour rehearsal (VMBR), imagery, modelling.
Imagery
Rehearsing the skills and sequence of skills in our mind to reinforce neuromuscular activity patterns to execute the skills effectively. Can (and should) involve as many sense modalities as possible to elicit emotion.
“… actually a form of simulation. It is similar to a real sensory experience (eg. seeing, feeling or hearing) but the entire experience occurs in the mind” (Weinberg & Gould, 2015)
Visual imagery = “visualization”.
Polysensory (multisensory) imagery = imagery that involves more than one sense modality (eg. visual, auditory, kinaesthetic …). E.G. Shooting free throws with crowd noise as backgroun audio.
Emotional Imagery = imagery that is multisensory and also includes emotional involvement
Motor Imagery = mental process by which an individual rehearses or simulates a given action.
5 Characteristics Of The Imagery Process
Modality: The senses used in imagery (auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, kinesthetic)
Perspective: The visual perspective taken. E.G. Imagining a skill from first/third person.
Angle: Viewing angle when imaging from an external perspective.
Agency: The author or agent of the behaviour being imagined. E.G. You are another person feeling what they are feeling.
Deliberation: The degree to which imagery is deliberate or spontaneous. How easy to we slip into that ability to imagine? Do we need lots of cues or is it easy?
Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Imagery
Imagery Ability: More effective for those who possess a high imagery ability.
Skill Level of Performer: Greater effects for more highly trained experienced athletes.
Nature of Task: Cognitive vs motor. Tasks that require fine motor control respond better to imagery.
Imagery Perspective: internal vs external.
Correctness of Imagery: Negative imagery – E.G. Missing the shot = decreased performance.
Amount of MP: 50 sessions lead to the best performance as it tapered off from there (Kremer & Spittle).
PsychoNeuroMuscular Theory
Imagery facilitates neuromuscular activity patterns similar to actual performance (strengthens neural pathways making it more likely to occur in actual performance when we need it).
Symbolic Learning Theory
Cognitively oriented theory – Imagery symbolises movements in brain (Sackett, 1934) – Imagery helps create/consolidate mental map or blueprint of movements needed (Vealey & Walter, 1993). Rehearsing in our head to help build memory pathways. Stronger effects for imagery on cognitive tasks than motor tasks.
Psychological State Hypothesis
Imagery has general rather than specific effect and effect is on athlete’s preparation for task performance (Schmidt, 1982). Here are some suggestions why.
Attention/Arousal: Helps set optimal arousal levels to focus on relevant cues.
Motivation: Imagining achieving goals to builds motivation do to the task.
Confidence: Imagining oneself performing similar to watching someone else perform the skill (modelling) to create reinforcement.
BioInformational Theory
Image = functionally organised set of propositions stored by brain (a “prototype”)
Two main types of propositions:
Stimulus propositions: describe specific features of scenario
Response propositions: describe imager’s response to the scenario. How does the athlete respond to that stimulation.
Hypothesised that imagery instructions that include stimulus AND response propositions will:
Elicit greater physiological response (better accessing of prototype)
Stronger therapeutic effect (improvement in performance)
Summary
Still unclear exactly which mechanisms mental imagery facilities performance because its very difficult to measure and explain why.
Learning Objectives
To be able to distinguish the terms mental practice, mental imagery, visualisation, and motor imagery.
To understand how different factors influence the effectiveness of mental imagery.
To be able to describe the main approaches used to measure mental imagery.
To understand the key theoretical perspectives on how/why mental imagery ‘works’.
To understand when/how to use mental imagery as well as the guidelines for effective imagery use.
Arousal Regulation (W4)
Online Class #4
It’s about increasing your self awareness of your psychological states before you can begin to regulate our own arousal.
Measuring Arousal & Anxiety
Verbalized self reports/scales is the most practical. (“My heart is pumping”)
Physiological measures: HR, EMG (muscle tension), GSR (sweating), peripheral skin temp
Self Awareness Of Arousal
Once you are aware of your optimal arousal, you can employ arousal regulation (reduction, maintenance, induction) strategies.
How individuals cope with anxiety is more important than how much anxiety they experience.
Compared to non-elite athletes, elite athletes see their anxiety as facilitative rather than debilitative.
Arousal Affects Performance
Increases muscular tension. Interferes with motor control and fatigue.
Altered attention, concentration that may result in attending to self destructive cues (worrying about worrying)
Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques
Works to reduce the physiological arousal associated with increase somatic anxiety. Often our cognitive anxiety feeds off our perception of our physical sensations.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation (tensing/relaxing muscle groups)
Tensing and relaxing are mutually exclusive – you cannot do them at the same time in this context.
Tension in the body creates tension in the mind. Becoming AWARE of tension in order to consciously relax dramatically helps.
Breath Control
One of the most effective ways to control anxiety and tension.
E.G. 1:2 ratio (4 in:8 out)
Biofeedback
Involves electronic device that provides visual/auditory feedback of physiological responses.
Relaxation Response (Meditation)
A form of meditation that teaches you to quiet the mind, concentrate and reduce muscular tension.
4 Elements: Quiet place. Comofrtable position. Mental cue word to focus (‘om’ ‘breath’). Passive attitude: Refocusing mind.
Autogenic Training
A series of exercises to produce sensations.
6 Hierarchical Stages:
1. Heaviness in the extremities. (‘my right arm is heavy’)
2. Warmth in the extremities.
3. Regulation of heart rate.
4. Regulation of breathing.
5. Abdominal warmth.
6. Cooling of the forehead.
Systemic Desensitization
Anxious people have a learned response (think classical conditioning) to have excessively high levels of anxiety (IN autonomic response) in response to particular situations. E.G. Phobias.
It’s about trying to unlearn this response and replace the nervous activity with a coping behaviour.
1. Before you can do that you need to learn deep muscle relaxation so you can cope with the stress.
2. Create an anxiety hierarchy (5-10 scenes) from least – most anxiety producing.
3/4. Client asked to imagine 1st scene – progressively go up in anxiety producing scenes while using anxiety reducing techniques until no anxiety experienced.
Multimodal Anxiety Reduction Packages
5 phases of cognitive-affective stress management training:
1. Pre-treatment phase (assess skills and deficits of an athlete in terms of anxiety management)
2. Identify treatment rationale phase
3. Skill acquisition (training in muscular relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and self-instruction)
4. Skill rehearsal
5. Post training evaluation
Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)
An individual is exposed to and learns to cope with stress (via productive thoughts, mental images, and self-statements) in increasing amounts, thereby enhancing his or her immunity to stress. Some phobias are dealt with using this method.
1. Prepare for the stressor (acknowledging it’s going to be challenging)
2. Control and handle the stressor (managing self talk and techniques – becoming process focused instead of emotion focused)
3. Cope with feelings of being overwhelmed
4. Evaluate coping efforts
Hyponsis
“An altered state of consciousness that can be induced by a procedure in which a person is in an unusually relaxed state and responds to suggestions for making alterations in perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or actions” (Kirsch, 1994)
1. Induction phase: trust is needed and participant must want to be hypnotised, before directing participants thoughts and feelings to being relaxed and peaceful
2. Hypnotic phase: participants are usually asked to respond to specific suggestions, which are carried out after they are fully awake
3. Waking phase: participant comes out of the trance
4. Posthypnotic phase: suggestions given during hypnotic phase are designed to influence them during competition or exercise for example.
The more open individuals are to receiving suggestions, the more likely they are to benefit from suggestions given under hypnosis.
The Matching Hypothesis
An anxiety management technique should be matched to a particular problem.
This means that…
Cognitive anxiety should be treated with mental relaxation AND Somatic anxiety should be treated with physical relaxation.
Coping
Coping is a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Problem-focused coping
Develop soltutions/strategies to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (e.g., time management, problem solving)
Emotion-focused coping
Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (e.g., through relaxation, meditation)
Seeking social support coping:
Occurs when one turns to others for assistance and emotional support in times of stress.
Coping In Sport
Athletes must learn a diverse set of problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies to use in different situations and for different stress sources.
Coping strategies frequently used by athletes:
Task focus
Rational thinking and self-talk
Positive focus and orientation
Social support
Mental preparation and anxiety management (pre performance routines)
Time management (a lot of stress is caused my poor time management)
Training hard and smart
Resiliency
Bouncing back from a adverse situation. Many individuals gain positive attributes as a consequence.
Mental toughness and personal resources (e.g., determination, competitiveness, commitment) are keys for resilient performers to cope with adversity.
Sociocultural influences such as social support (or lack of it) are seen as critical to being resilient.
Coping With Emotions
Self-statement modification: Change negative to positive statements (self talk)
Imagery: Cope with negative emotions or use positive emotions.
Corrective experiences: Athlete makes a conscious decision to engage in the behavior that is of concern, which can reduce anxiety and correct past mistakes.
Vicarious learning: Modeling appropriate behaviors makes it more likely that behavior will be produced.
Self-analysis: Monitor emotions in sport and thus increase self-awareness.
Goal setting: Focus on achieving a specific outcome.
Storytelling, metaphors, and poetry: encourage athletes to consider alternative ways of viewing and dealing with the situation
Reframing: Perspective taking involves viewing an important competition as just another game.
On The Spot Relaxation Tips
Smile. Encourage fun and play. Set up stressful situations in practice to mitigate in game stress. Slow down – patience. Stay focused on the present. Prepare with a plan.
Signs Of Under Arousal
Distracted.
Moving slow/lethargic.
Lack of concern.
The goal is to get the athlete in THEIR specific optimal level of arousal.
Arousal Inducing Techniques
Increase breathing rate. • Act energized. • Use mood words and positive statements. • Yell or shout. • Listen to music. • Use energizing imagery. • Complete a pre-competition workout.
Concentration (W4)
Lecture #4 (30.3.17)
Attention
“… taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalisation, concentration of consciousness are the essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with other” (William James, 1890)
Concentration
“… person’s ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situation” (Moran, 2004)
Defining Concentration In Sport & Exercise
1. Focusing on relevant cues in the environment
2. Maintaining that attentional focus over time
3. Having awareness of the situation and performance errors
4. Shifting attentional focus as cues change over time
Selective Attention
Focusing on relevant environmental cues
Irrelevant cues either eliminated or disregarded
Can be improved with automation
External focus on what’s happening in front of you preferable over over focus on internal
Theoretical Perspectives of Attention-Performance Relationship
Information Processing Approach
Single channel of information (fixed capacity) approach.
Variable (flexible) approach. Multiple stimuli to focus attention on.
Multiple pools theory: draws on both ideas
3 Central Processes To Attention
Attentional Selectivity
Like shining a spotlight on the things that matter.
It’s not how long they focus for but what they focus on that matters.
Attentional Capacity
Refers to the fact attention is limited and you’re eventually going to zone out as some point
You can only process so much info at a time
Attentional Alterness
Increases in emotional arousal narrows the attentional field so we miss cues we’d ordinarily pick up on
3 Theoretical Theories
1. Cognitive Perspective
Most cognitive theories of attention adopt an information processing approach. Analogy of human mind as a computer = both function as information processors
3 Dimensions Of Attention
Sensory register (conscious attention)
Short term memory
Long term memory
1a. Attention as Altertness
Development and short-and long-term maintenance of optimal sensitivity and readiness
E.G.: players in team sports where environment is constantly changing. They have to constantly adapt to their chaotic unpredictable circumstances
As fatigue sets in ability to process info is compromised – errors become more likely.
Alterness: Short Term
Ability to maintain alertness is limited and alertness dependent on arousal. Cortisol levels are lowest in the afternoon/evening so natural arousal levels are lower.
It’s about finding your own optimal level of arousal to maximise your alertness and focus.
Alterness: Long Term
Maintaining attentional focus before fatigue sets in which is around 30 mins.
Preserving resources by switching attention on and off (mental breaks)
Use a pre-shot/pre-performance routine to bring focus back
1b. Attention as a Limited Capacity
Attention is limited in amount of information that can be processed at any one time.
Capacity or resource limits in processing space
Assessed using divided attention tasks. Getting them to do 2-3 tasks at once.
Automatic & Controlled Processing
As we get more experienced in a skill we improve our automatic processing.
Attention As Limited Capacity: Implications for Sport
Keep instructions simple and break down skills into segments.
1c. Attention as Selectivity
Focus attentional resources to specific cues
Certain information (task relevant cues) selected for processing while other information (task irrelevant cues) is ignored
E.G. Hearing your name in a loud crowd.
Gate out: ability to shut out/ignore information
Attenuate: ability to reduce task irrelevant cues and/or increase task relevant cues
2. Neuroscience Perspective (Physiological Processes of Attention)
Broadly concerned with identification of neural substrates of mental processes. Recent technological advances enable ‘real time’ analysis of cortical activity (eg. ERP, EEG, PET, fMRI)
3. ‘Individual Differences’ Perspective
Attention considered as an ‘individual difference’ variable that can be measured psychometrically.
Attention characteristics at times are trait like and other times state like.
Types of Attentional Focus
Individual Differences Approach Implications for Sport
Attentional control training:
Awareness of default attentional style to take steps to change and improve it.
Identify task relevant (and irrelevant) cues.
Develop a focused plan to manage over or under arousal.
Attentional Problems
Internal Distractors
Attending to past events
Attending to future events
Over-analysis of body mechanics
Fatigue
Inadequate motivation
Choking under pressure
External Distractors
Visual distractors: leaderboard (golf), scoreboard, spectators
Auditory distractors: announcements
Gamesmanship: trash taking, grunts.
Improving Concentration
Selective attention training (focusing on task relevant cues):
Occlusion tasks with explicit instructions that link specific cues with outcomes (eg. squash, tennis, cricket …) where has our body got to be in time and space?
Video-based perceptual training programs (eg. cricket, AFL, tennis, umpiring, driving …)
Simulation training
Use cue words
Use appropriate self motivating self talk
Overlearn skills to make skills “automatic” to free up other cognitive resources
Develop a mental competition plan: athlete should have specific thoughts, words, images and feelings leading up to competition to optimally prepare mind for top performance
Routines:
Help athletes transfer attention from task-irrelevant thoughts to task-relevant thoughts:
Help athletes transfer attention from task-irrelevant thoughts to task-relevant thoughts and allows performance to stay automatic (ie. without interference of conscious awareness)
Improving Concentration: Non-Sport
Mindfulness: Awareness of thoughts – letting them go + keeping a present state of mind focus
Learning to shift attention from narrow to broad / to broad to narrow
Distraction training: music
Learning Objectives
To understand how the terms attention and concentration are defined within sport
To be able to distinguish the information processing, neuroscientific and individual difference perspectives of attention
To be able to describe key internal and external distractors that may disrupt attention and to understand the process of choking
To be able to describe several of the key sport-based and generic techniques/skills that can be used to improve attention and concentration
Self Confidence (W5)
Online Class #5
Defining Self Confidence
Self‐confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior
Dispositional self‐confidence is the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed.
State self‐confidence is the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed.
Self‐fulfilling prophecy: Expecting something to happen actually helps
cause it to happen.
Negative self‐fulfilling prophecy: This is a psychological barrier whereby the expectation of failure leads to actual failure.
Benefits of Self‐Confidence
1. Arouses positive emotions 2. Facilitates concentration 3. Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals 4. Increases effort 5. Affects game strategies (play to win vs. play to lose) 6. Affects psychological momentum 7. Affects performance
Levels Of Confidence
Optimal confidence: convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so. There’s an intensity of effort to pursue goals.
Lack of confidence (self‐doubt): create anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness.
Overconfidence (false confidence): causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform.
Sources of Sport Self‐Confidence
Mastery: Of skills
Demonstration of ability: Showing ability by winning and outperforming opponents
Physical and mental preparation: Staying focused on goals and being prepared to give maximum effort. You know you’ve done the preperation which gives you self t to perform.
Physical self‐presentation: Feeling good about one’s body and weight
Social support: Getting encouragement from teammates, coaches, and family
Coaches’ leadership: Trusting coaches’ decisions and believing in their abilities
Vicarious experience: Seeing other athletes perform successfully
Environmental comfort: Feeling comfortable in the environment where one will perform
How Expectations Influence Performance
Expectations play a critical role in the behavior change process. Positive
expectations of success produce positive effects in many fields, including sport.
Self‐expectations and performance
The expectation of beating a tough opponent or successfully performing a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome.
Coaches’ and teachers’ expectations are very important
A teacher’s or coach’s expectations can alter a student’s or athlete’s feelings and performance.
Coaches’ Expectations & Athletes’ Performance
Stage 1: Coaches form expectations based on:
Personal cues (e.g., sex, race, body size) and performance information (e.g., skill tests, practice behaviors).
Solomon (2008a, 2010) found 4 categories for these personal and performance factors:
Coachability / Physical ability / Being a team player / Maturity
Problems occur when inaccurate expectations (too high – unnecessary pressure or too low – won’t reach far enough to hit goals) are formed.
Stage 2: Coaches expectations influence their behaviours
Frequency and quality of coach–athlete interactions
Spend more time with high‐expectation athletes because they expect more of them. Show more warmth and positive affect towards these athletes
Quantity and quality of instruction
Lowers expectations of what skills some athletes will learn ‐> establishing a lower standard of performance
Lower expectation athletes allowed less time in practice drills/teaching skills
Less persistent in teaching difficult skills to low‐expectation athletes
Type and frequency of feedback
More reinforcement and praise to high‐expectation athletes after successful performance
Quantitatively less beneficial feedback to low‐expectation athletes after mediocre performance. Even though mediocre performances still have lessons to learn within them.
Gives high‐expectation athletes more instructional and informative feedback.
Stage 3: Coaches behaviors affects athletes performances:
Low‐expectation athletes exhibit poorer performances because they receive less effective reinforcement, less playing time
Low‐expectation athletes lower levels of self‐confidence and perceived competence over the course of a season
Low‐expectation athletes attribute their failures to lack of ability, thus perpetuating this notion that they aren’t good and have little chance of future success
SO the expectation‐biased treatment affects performance both physically and psychologically.
Stage 4: Athletes performances confirm the coaches expectations
Athletes’ performance confirms the coaches’ original expectations.
Performance results then feed back into Stage 1 of the coaches’ expectations and athlete performance process
So it’s really important how expectations are set and any potential bias’ + need to monitor quantity and quality of reinforcement.
Expectation & Behaviour Guidelines
Coaches should realize that their initial assessments of an athlete’s competence may be inaccurate and thus need to be revised continually as the season progresses.
Coaches should design instructional activities or drills that provide all athletes with an opportunity to improve their skills. Instead of singling out one star athlete every time.
Coaches should communicate their expectations to athletes so athletes are aware of how they are being evaluated.
Defining self‐efficacy
Self‐efficacy is the perception of ones ability to perform a task successfully.
It is really a situation‐specific form of self‐confidence – terms self efficacy & self confidence often used interchangeably
Self‐regulatory efficacy now used; focuses more on ability to overcome obstacles or challenges to successful performance
Other types of efficacy
Learning efficacy: Individuals beliefs in their capacity to learn a new skill
Decision‐making efficacy: Individuals beliefs that they are competent decision makers
Coping efficacy: Individuals beliefs in their ability to cope in the face of perceived threats
Self‐presentational efficacy: Individuals beliefs in conveying a desired impression to others (ie. Strong, fit, coordinated)
Other efficacy: Individuals beliefs in the ability of others (e.g. partner, teammates, coach)
Bandura’s Self‐Efficacy Theory
Self‐efficacy provides a model for studying the effects of self‐confidence on sport performance, persistence, and behavior.
Self‐efficacy affects an athlete’s choice of activities, level of effort, and
persistence.
People with high self‐efficacy set more challenging goals.
Derived from 6 principal sources of self‐efficacy
1. Performance accomplishments
Accomplishments are the most dependable source.
Successful experiences raise the level of self‐efficacy, while failure
results in lowered efficacy.
2. Vicarious experiences (modeling)
Seeing others or modeling other’s performing well at the tasks influences efficacy.
3. Verbal persuasion
From oneself and others (coaches, teachers, peers) can enhance feelings of self‐efficacy.
4. In imaginal experiences
Individuals can generate beliefs about personal efficacy or lack of efficacy by imagining themselves or others behaving effectively or ineffectively in future situations. Imagery.
5. Physiological states
Influence self‐efficacy when they are associated with aversive physiological arousal, poor performance, and perceived failure.
6. Emotional states
Or moods, are a source of efficacy information.
Assessing self‐confidence
Informally the following questions might be posed:
When am I over confident / How do I recover from my mistakes / When do I have self‐doubts / Is my confidence consistent throughout an event / Am I tentative and indecisive in certain situations / Do I look forward to and enjoy tough, highly competitive games
Building Self‐Confidence
Ensure performance accomplishments
Successful behavior increases confidence and leads to further successful behavior – self fulfilling prophecy.
Tactical instructions – the ‘what’ and ‘why’ behind what you did right and wrong.
Use game‐pressure simulations to train the way you compete.
Act confidently
Instructors and coaches should display confidence + Teach athletes to display confidence. Body language.
Respond with confidence
Athletes should focus on responding with control and confidence, as opposed to reacting with emotion or unproductive behaviors. Responding instead of reacting.
Think confidently
Focus on instruction and motivating thoughts.
Focus on remembering good performances, not poor ones.
Use imagery
Imagine yourself as confident and successful with vivid emotions and multiple senses.
Goal mapping
Have personalized goal achievement plans. Focused and persistent in the pursuit of goals.
Training for physical conditioning
Optimal physical preparedness gives increased confidence in abilities.
Prepare
Develop performance plans and precompetitive routines; plans give you confidence because you know what to do.
Social climate
Leadership style, types of goals, social support network, and social feedback influence confidence. Fostering a supportive social group that uplifts and empowers.
Building Team (Collective) Efficacy
Before competition
Focus on developing joint perceptions of capabilities and fitness to manage the upcoming competition in a successful manner.
During competition
Focus on getting team members believing in one another right before and during the game.
After competition
Develop intra‐team interpretations of experiences of the game. Critically assess each other and use feedback to get better.
Learning Objectives
To define and understand the benefits of self-confidence
To be able to identify sources of sport self-confidence
To understand how expectations affect performance and behaviour
To be able to explain the theory of self-efficacy
To know how to assess self-confidence
To be able to describe strategies for building self-confidence
Team Cohesion (W6)
Lecture #5 (13.4.17)
What Is A Team?
Collection of individuals -> two or more people
Group -> two or more people who interact with, and exert mutual influenceon each other (Aronson et al. 2002)
Team-> special type of group
1. Collective sense of identity (“we” rather than “I”)
2. Distinctive roles (all members know their job)
3. Structured modes of communication. How they communicate with each other.
4. Norms (social rules/standards/values that guide members on what to do/not do)
Defining Group/Team Cohesion
Cohesion -> total field of forces that act on members to remain in the group (Festingeret al., 1950)
Two distinct forces act on members to remain in group:
Attractiveness of group -> desire for interpersonal interactions and to be involved
Means control -> benefits of being associated with group (eg. recognition, social status)
Team cohesion -> dynamic process that displays group’s tendency to stick together while pursing its goals and/or satisfaction of members needs (Carron et al., 1998)
So, cohesion is…
1. Multidimensional (many factors are related to why team sticks together)
2. Dynamic (cohesion among team can change over time)
Multidimensional
Don’t have to have high social cohesion to have high task cohesion and perform. Though high social cohesion won’t really help when there’s and low task cohesion for winning.
Dynamic
Measuring Cohesion
Questionnaire measures = dominant approach
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) (Widmeyeret al., 1985; Brawley et al., 1987): Based on conceptual model + Systematically developed (reliable and valid) + GEQ cohesion related to team performance, adherence, satisfaction …
Sociograms: = less widely used but helpful, practical.
Questionnaires are aggregate indicators of cohesion and don’t show relationships, affiliation, and attraction
E.G. “Name the 3 people you would most like to practice with in off-season and the 3 people you would least like to practice with in off-season.”
Social network analysis: more complex modelling of informal relations among team members
Carron’s Conceptual Model of Cohesion
Cohesion and Group Norm for Productivity
Doted line: They are highly cohesive but not very productive – probably due to high social cohesion and low task cohesion.
Team Cohesion & Performance
Intuitively: higher cohesion -> better performance (not always the case it depends on the type of cohesion. High social cohesion doesn’t automatically = high performance)
Most research suggests a positive relationship
But some studies have found negative relationship* – where social cohesion leads to distraction from task performance
Relationship depends on:
1. Type of measurement (ie. task vs social)
Positive relationship between task and performance
Mixed relationship between social and performance
2. Type of Task
Stronger relationship for interactive sports where they need to rely on other members of the teams. Individual sports obviously have less effect.
3. Direction of Causation
Which one do we need first?
Carron and Ball (1977) study – they found a bi-directional relationship that “performance effects cohesion more than cohesion effects performance”. = High performance = bringing people together to have high cohesion. What Boston Celtics did the first year Pierce, Allen and Garnett came together to win their championship. After they won their cohesion sky rocketed.
Enhancing Cohesion
Role clarity is critical. Everyone must know their role and place in the team in order to remain cohesive and avoid clashing.
Guidelines for Building Team Cohesion
Learning Objectives
To define cohesion and distinguish between task and social cohesion
To be able to describe Carron’s conceptual model of cohesion
To describe key approaches to measuring cohesion
To understand the relationship between cohesion and performance
To be able to describe the key principles/guidelines for building team cohesion
Group & Team Dynamics (W6)
Online Class #6
Group = two or more people who interact with, and exert mutual influence on each other (Aronson et al. 2002)
Team = special type of group; defined by four characteristics:
1. Collective sense of identity (“we” rather than “I”)
2. Distinctive roles (all members know their job)
3. Structured modes of communication
4. Norms (social rules that guide members on what to do/not do)
3 Perspectives of Forming a Team (probably be on exam)
Especially FSNP
Group/Team Structure
To be an effective team group roles need to be identified.
1. Group Roles
Formal Roles: Dictated by nature and structure of organization. Each role has specific expectations and individuals are either recruited or trained to fill the specific roles (eg. Coach, instructor, captain, defender)
Informal Roles: Generally develop as interactions among team members evolve. E.G. 12 informal roles identified: The enforcer (contact sports) Mediator. Team clown. Social convener.
Group Norms: A norm around the level of performance or values of the team
Group/Team Structure ‐ Roles
Role Clarity
Unclear roles hurt team performance
Role confusion can make team become inefficient and lead to conflict as to who is supposed to be doing what job
Effective team goal setting -> team members direction and focus
Role Acceptance
Willingness to accept and carry out role
Depends on:
Opportunities to use specialized skills/competencies
Feedback and role recognition
Role significance
Autonomy (opportunity to work independently)
Group/Team Structure ‐ Norms
Norm -> level of performance, pattern of behaviour, or belief
Can be formally established or developed by the group/team. E.G. dress, hairstyles, nature of interactions etc.
Norm for productivity -> standard of effort and performance accepted by group/team. Associated with ‘special’ (very high functioning) teams. E.G. attendance, punctuality, preparation, sacrific
Creating an Effective Team Climate
Social support: Mutual respect and support enhance team climate. Social support provides appraisal information, reassurance, and cooperation. It reduces uncertainty in times of stress, aids in mental and physical recovery, and improves communication.
Proximity: Closer contact between members promotes team interaction.
Distinctiveness: The more distinctive the group feels, the better the climate. E.G. Uniforms, special privileges to set them a part and make them feel unique.
Fairness: or a lack of it—can bring a group closer together via how much trust is created.
Greater similarity = closer climate. Similarity in commitment, values, goals.
Social Support
An exchange of resources between at least two people perceived by the provider and the recipient as intended to enhance the well‐being of the recipient.
Functions of Social Support:
Provides appraisal, information, reassurance, and companionship
Reduces uncertainty during times of stress
Aids in mental and physical recovery
Improves communication
7 Types of Social Support
1. Listening support
2. Emotional support
3. Emotional‐challenge support
4. Reality‐confirmation support
5. Task‐appreciation support
6. Task‐challenge support
7. Personal‐assistance support
Individuals & the Team
What is the relationship between individual abilities within a team and team performance? Is a good team more than the sum of its parts?
Steiner’s model -> relationship between individual abilities/resources on team and how team member’s interact
Actual productivity = Potential productivity ‐ Losses due to faulty group processes (e.g. lack of team cohesion)
Implies that actual productivity will not match potential productivity unless all available resources are used to match demands of the task
Two kinds of losses occur due to faulty group processes
1. Motivational losses -> when team members don’t give 100% effort
2. Coordination losses -> when timing between team members is off or when ineffective strategies are used
Sports with highly complex interactions -> more susceptible to coordination losses
As complexity of team interactions increases importance of individual ability decreases and importance of group processes increases (Jones, 1974)
Implications of Steiner’s Model: Role of the coach
Increase relevant resources (through training, instruction, and recruiting).
Reduce process losses (through enhancing cohesion and emphasizing individual contributions to the team).
The Ringlemam Effect:
Individual performance decreases as number of people in group increases due to a decrease in motivation rather than coordination
The greater the need for cooperation and interaction in a task, the more the importance of individual ability decreases and the importance of group productivity increases
Teams of equal ability tend to play best.
Because you know how much effort your putting in within a group context can’t usually be assessed and measured – easy to fade into the background and socially load because you can’t be held accountable.
Social loafing -> when individuals in a team put forth less than 100% effort
More likely to occur when:
Individual’s output cannot be independently evaluated
Comparison against group standard is not possible
Task is perceived to be low on meaningfulness
Individual perceives that his/her contribution to outcome is redundant
Other individuals contributing to the collective effort are strangers.
Teammates or co‐workers are seen as high in ability.
The individual is competing against what he or she believes to be a weaker opponent.
Eliminating Social Loafing
Emphasize the importance of individual pride and unique contributions.
Increase identifiability of individual performances so people are accountable.
Determine specific situations in which social loafing occurs and having strategies in place for that.
Conduct individual meetings to discuss social loafing.
Appreciate each teammate’s responsibilities by assigning players to other positions.
Divide the team into smaller units.
Attribute failure to internal unstable factors.
How to enhance team functioning
Teach foundational psychosocial skills (self awareness techniques, goal setting)
Facilitate an optimal coaching environment.
Develop the coach–athlete relationship.
Enhance role perceptions of themselves and teammates.
Increase group cohesion.
Enhancing Peer Relationships
Peer relations or relationships with teammates usually stand out as particularly important and meaningful for athletes.
Therefore, enhancing peer relations is an important aspect of improved group and team dynamics.
Generate cooperative goals in the sport setting.
Encourage young athletes to engage in their own problem solving rather than expect adults to solve problems for them getting them to take responsibility for decision making therefore improving team cohesion/performance.
Enable athletes to engage in shared decision making instead of always using individual punishments/rewards.
Design sport settings for small‐group activities and maximum participation.
Select peer leaders on criteria other than athletic ability (e.g., leadership skills).
Enhancing the Desire for Group Success
Strategies for developing the desire for group success
Emphasize a pride‐in‐team approach with a unifying team goal.
Ensure that each member’s contribution is valued and recognized by coach and teammates.
Place strong emphasis on good leadership from the coach and captains.
Actively work to develop both task and social cohesion.
Encourage unified commitment to the team effort—reward the pursuit of excellence (the process) not just the task of success.
Use effective communication to keep all members feeling part of the team.
Learning Objectives
To discuss how a group becomes a team
To understand how groups are structured
To be able to describe how to create an effective team climate
To describe how to maximize individual performance in team sports
To understand the concept of social loafing and discuss the conditions under which social loafing is more likely to occur
Psychological Effects of Exercise on Mental Illness (W7)
Lecture #6 (20.4.17)
1965 Activity Level and 1974 Depression
Odds of depression for females are much lower compare to males at a moderate level of PA. Males have to do a high level of PA to get to as low of a level as females.
Of 30 studies, 25 found that PA prevented the onset of depression in the future. There was an inverse relationship between baseline PA and depression at the time of follow up. (Resarch Update Feb 2004)
They found that medication and aerobic exercise decrease levels of depression to about the same amount but medication was faster at decreasing the levels of depression.
Clinical interviews at 6 mths found lower rates of depression in exercise grp(30%) than in medication (52%) and combined grps (55%) (p=.028)
Exercise grp->lower relapse rate and reported less medication use
Patients who reported they engaged in regular aerobic exercise during 6 mthfollow-up period -> less likely to be classified as depressed at end
Aerobic Exercise as Treatment –
Guidelines
Exercise Intensity & Mood
Moderate intensity exercise is generally viewed as most beneficial exercise intensity
Research is inconclusive re: high vs low intensity – High intensity exercise has been shown to:
mprove mood (Dishman1986, Tate & Petruzzello1995)
Have no effect on mood (Berger & Owen 1992)
Worsen mood (Parfittet al 1994, 1996, Steptoe & Cox, 1988)
Inconclusive. Depends on conditions.
Exercise Duration & Mood
Thayer (1996) found positive psychological changes in mood when exercising for as little as 5–10 mins
Petruzzelloand Landers (1994) found a reduction in state anxiety after 15 minse xercise but no change in positive or negative affect
Exercise Modality & Mood
Narrative review suggests aerobic and resistance exercise consistently enhances mood (Fox, 1999) Rhythmic, closed activity allows disengagement.
Yoga, fencing, swimming have shown improvements in mood (Berger & Owen, 1983)
Weight training increased state anxiety; same subjects found decreased state anxiety following cycling(Raglin, 1993) (these were competitive athletes so findings may not be generalisable)
Exercise & Mood
Exercise & Sleep
Chroniceffects of fitness:
Increased sleep duration,
Increased total sleep time,
Increased high amplitude, slow wave EEG activity
Acuteeffect of exercise: Increased depth of night time sleep (Kubitzet al 1996)
Mechanisms: How are changes taking place?
Psychological:
Distraction hypothesis: Exercise a “time out”
Mastery and self-determination: Mastery -> self-esteem -> mental health
Social interaction hypotheses: Social affiliation -> self-esteem -> mental health
Expectancy hypothesis: Exercise is good for me -> expect positive effect -> positive effect (placebo)
Physiological:
Endorphin hypothesis: Exercise releases endorphins -> elevate mood; feelings of euphoria -> ‘runner’s high’ Evidence inconclusive
Other theories:
Increased body temp or brain blood flow: Reductions in tension, reduced anxiety …
Altered endocrine systems: Release of hormones important for positive MH/wellbeing
Increased monoamine release: Activity stimulates release of specific neurotransmitters (eg. dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin …) -> positive mood states
Learning Objectives
Describe the relationship between exercise and depression and anxiety
Understand the effect of exercise as a treatment for diagnosed depression
Describe the relationship between exercise and wellbeing, QoL, life stress, and mood
Understand how exercise effects sleep and personality and other benefits
Describe the main mechanisms proposed to explain psychological effects of exercise
Leadership (W7)
Online Class #7
What is Leadership?
“the behavioural process influencing individuals and groups toward set goals” Barrow (1977) defined leadership as:
“the process whereby an individual influences a group to achieve a common goal” Northouse (2010) defined leadership as:
A leader knows where the individual or group is going and provides the direction and resources to help them get there.
How are Leaders Chosen?
Prescribed leaders
Appointed by someone in authority so often has to gain the respect.
Emergent leaders
Often more effective than prescribed – respect and support is already somewhat established
Leadership Theory (Bass & Reggio, 2006)
1900’s: “great man” theories — it’s an innate ability
1930’s: group theory — how leadership emerges and develops in small groups
1940’s-50’s: trait theory — universal traits
1950’s- 60’s: behaviour theory — what key behavioural patterns result in leadership
1960’s-70’s: contingency/ situational approach — establish which leadership traits/behaviours in which specific situations
1980’s onward: focus on excellence — what interaction of traits, behaviours, key situations, and group facilitation allows people to lead organizations to excellence?
Trait Theory
Based on “great man” theory of leadership : Great leaders have personality traits/characteristics that make them ideally suited for leadership
“Leaders are born”
Proponents -> since it’s a personality trait then those with leadership traits be successful leaders in any situation
Behaviour Theory
Focus on universal behaviours: Successful leaders had certain universal behaviours
Once these behaviours were identified – then they could be taught to potential leaders everywhere.
“Leaders are made, not born.”
Contingency Theory (interactional approach)
Leadership effectiveness is situation specific ‐ effectiveness of group is
contingent on relationship between leadership style (personality traits) and
degree to which situation enables leader to exert influence
Leaders effective in one situation may not be in another
Selecting leader (personality) that matches the situation
Sport‐Oriented Interactional Theories
Leadership effectiveness is function of interaction between leader
behaviour in a specific situation and the situation itself
Effectiveness of group is contingent on relationship between leadership style (personality traits) and degree to which situation enables leader to exert influence
Selecting leader who can adjust their behaviour to best match the situation
Cognitive‐Mediational Model
Smoll & Smith (1989) proposed this theoretical model
Incorporated a situational approach – i.e. coach behaviours vary as a function of situational factors
But emphasises relationships between situational, cognitive, behavioural and individual difference variables – an all encomposing model.
Also argued “a truly comprehensive model of leadership requires consideration of cognitive processes and individual differences which mediate relationships between antecedents, behaviours, and outcomes”
1. Life Cycle Theory
2. Multidimensional Model
Chelladurai, 1978, 1990, 2007
Postulate: Leader effectiveness in sport will vary depending on the characteristics of the athletes and constraints of the situation.
Athletes satisfaction depends on:
1. 3 types of leader behaviour ‐ required (organisational expected norms), actual (behaviour actually exhibited), and preferred (preference for type of leader/personality)
2. The situation
3. The leader
4. The members
Transformational Leadership
Leadership in the pursuit of excellence – Chelladurai’s recommendations (2007)
1. Create a compelling vision for people to follow
2. Inspirational communication
3. Intellectual stimulation
4. Individualised attention and supportive behaviour
5. Personal recognition
6. Demanding and directive behaviours
7. Promoting self‐efficacy and self‐esteem
8. Emphasize the importance of winning but not at any cost
9. Fostering competitiveness in the team
10. Instilling task and ego orientations and climates
11. Provide cognitive, emotional, and technical training
12. Facilitating flow
Testing: Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS)
Developed to measure leadership behaviours: i.e. athletes preferences for specific behaviours, their perceptions of coaches behaviours, and coaches
perceptions of their own behaviour.
Effective Leadership
4 components – composite of many different approaches to leadership: Effectiveness from interaction of these components
Leader Qualities
Integrity • Candor • Flexibility • Preparedness • Loyalty • Resourcefulness • Confidence • Self‐discipline • Optimism • Patience • Accountability
Effective Leadership ‐ Styles
Democratic
Athlete‐centered, task oriented, flexible, cooperative, relationship oriented
Autocratic
Outcome oriented, often confrontational, very structured, inflexible, often feared by athletes
Transactional
Trading rewards and/or punishments for athlete behaviours/performance (play well this week – light training next week bargaining style)
Transformational
Builds trust, inspires others, encourages innovation, acts with integrity
Effective Leadership ‐ Situational Factors
Team sport vs Individual sport ◦ Team -> prefer more autocratic leaders. Interactive sports generally like more task orientated leaders.
Type of sport ◦ Interactive team sports-> prefer more task oriented leaders
Size of team ◦ As team size increases -> more difficult to use democratic leadership style
How much time is available ◦ Less time -> task oriented leader is more desirable
Does group have particular leadership tradition? ◦ Group having one style as a tradition may have difficulty changing to another style
Age/experience ◦ Older/more experienced athletes -> prefer autocratic (dont need toucht feely generally because of maturity)
Gender ◦ Females -> prefer more democratic
Behavioural Guidelines for Coaches
25 years of research back the guidelines provided by Smoll & Smith (2001) for coaching young athletes:
Provide reinforcement immediately after positive behaviors and reinforce effort as much as results.
Give encouragement and corrective instruction immediately after mistakes. Emphasize what the athlete did well, not what the athlete did poorly.
Don’t punish when athletes make a mistake. Fear of failure is reduced if you work to reduce fear of punishment so people are more likely to try if they don’t fear being punished.
Don’t give corrective feedback in a hostile, demeaning, or harsh manner; that is likely to increase frustration and build resentment.
Do maintain order by establishing clear expectations. Use positive reinforcement to strengthen the correct behaviours rather than punishment of incorrect behaviours.
Don’t get into the position of having to constantly nag or threaten athletes to prevent chaos.
Do use encouragement selectively so that it is meaningful. Encourage effort but don’t demand results.
Do provide technical instruction in a clear, concise manner and demonstrate how to perform the skill whenever possible.
Learning Objectives
To define leadership and describe the difference between leaders and managers
To understand the trait, behavioural, situational, and interactional approaches to studying leadership
To explain the cognitive‐mediational model of leadership
To explain the multi‐dimensional model of sport leadership
To discuss the four components of effective leadership
Exercise Psychology (W8)
Online Class #8
Activity Statistics
National Health Survey (2014-2015)
55.5% of 18-64 year olds participated in sufficient PA in last week (>150 mins of mod PA or >75 mins of vig PA, or equivalent combination of both, including walking)
29.7% were insufficiently active (<150 mins last week) while 14.8% were inactive (no exercise in last week)
Reasons / Motives
Knowledge of benefits is NOT enough – They do not capture or explain complex inter-relationships between specific psychological, social and environmental factors/motives
Barriers To Participation
PSFA, DASETT, 1992
Nearly 90% of women in 1992 said they were “too fat” and nearly 80% said they were “too shy” to exercise.
Exercise Adherence
Demonstrates the first law of exercise motivation …
‘a body at rest will continue at rest unless compelled to change that state by a net force’ (Kourneya, 2004)
Demonstrates the second law of exercise motivation …
‘a body in motion will not necessarily continue in motion unless it is compelled to maintain that state by a net force’ (Kourneya, 2004)
Theories of Exercise Behaviour
1. Health Belief Model
Widely recognised and enduring model associated with preventive health behaviours
Likelihood of individual engaging in individual health behaviour (eg. exercise) depends on:
Perceived susceptibility and severity of ill health
Perceived susceptibility
How likely one thinks a bad outcome (eg. get sick or a disease) is if behaviour persists (doesn’t change)
Perceived severity
Is consequence of bad outcome perceived to be severe or inconsequential/mild?
Perceived benefits and barriers to action
The alternative behaviour will reduce likelihood of negative consequence (eg. disease)
Benefits are perceived to outweigh costs
Cues to action
Self-Efficacy
2. Transtheoretical Model
Changing one’s behaviour is a process, not an event
Provides framework for understanding and segmenting the entire process of intentional behaviour change
Individuals at different levels of change = gear interventions to level of change
Offers an alternative to approaches that view people as simply resistant/uncooperative if not ready to change
Views motivation as state of readiness to move through the stages of change
Proposes a predictable pathway for behaviour change
How do people change?
People change voluntarily only when they:
Become concernedabout need for change
Become convincedthat change is in their best interests or will benefit them more than cost them
Organize a plan of action that they are committed to implementing
Take the actions necessary to make the change and sustain the change
This is a cyclical model not a linear model. Meaning a person can skip stages, doesn’t have to go in order.
3. Socio-Ecological Model
Apart from psychological variables, other influences include:
Demographic and biological factors
Cognitive and behavioural characteristics/skills
Social environment
Physical environment (natural and ‘built’)
Characteristics of the physical activity
Exercise/Physical Activity Strategies
Behaviour modification strategies
Generally show positive results (10-25% increase in frequency of PA c/f control group)
Prompt -> cue that initiates a behaviour
Verbal (eg. “Hang in there”)
Physical (eg. Achieving/moving beyond a specific challenge)
Symbolic (eg. Training gear on bed/office, posters, slogans …)
Contracting -> specifies expectations, responsibilities, and contingencies
Goal achievement vs compliance/attendance
Reinforcement strategies
Positive or negative reinforcement determines future action
Charting -> public reporting of attendance or performance = increase exercise motivation (Good idea to make it more competitive, even for coaches)
Rewarding -> use of rewards to enhance exercise adherence – Financial reward, lottery coupon – Reimbursement of cost of program at criterion attendance
Cognitive-Behavioural strategies
Decisional balance -> awareness of potential benefits and costs of exercise program
Goal setting -> useful technique to improve exercise behaviour and adherence
Association vs Dissociation -> focus on internal body feedback vs focus on external environment like music or coaches cueing
Study: Increasing stair use in a worksite through environmental changes.
METHODS:
We conducted a longitudinal study with no comparison group to evaluate the impact of environmental changes on stairway use. The setting was the main stairwell in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Rhodes Building in Atlanta, Georgia. Proximity sensors were installed in each stairwell entry to monitor traffic. The subjects were 554 permanent CDC employees and 110 temporary employees. Changes in stairwell use by intervention were evaluated.
RESULTS:
Both motivational signs and music significantly increased stair use by 8.9% over baseline (p < .05). The increase in sign use occurred in the first 3 months of the intervention, whereas the increase in music occurred after the first 3 months. But stair use returned to baseline levels eventually. But still an interesting observation of how critical environment may be to behavioral change.
DISCUSSION:
These data suggest that physical improvements to a stairwell, signage that encourages stair use, and music may increase physical activity among building occupants.
Learning Objectives
Discuss the reasons why people Discuss the reasons why people do / don’t exercise
Explain the different theories / frameworks of exercise behavior
Describe the key individual and environmental determinants for exercise adoption and adherence
Describe the different strategies used to enhance exercise adherence
Discuss the characteristics (ie. levels / settings) and effectiveness of different exercise interventionso / don’t exercise
Explain the different theories / frameworks of exercise behavior
Describe the key individual and environmental determinants for exercise adoption and adherence
Describe the different strategies used to enhance exercise adherence
Discuss the characteristics (ie. levels / settings) and effectiveness of different exercise interventions
Psychological Aspects of Injuries (W9)
Lecture #7 (11.4.17)
Statistics
Est 1 million sports injuries in Australia/year(Egger, 1990)
Sports injuries burden in Australia estimated $1.83 billion/year (Finch et al. 2004)
Est annual growth of 6% for Victorian hospital emergency department presentations relating to sports injury (Sports Injury Prevention Taskforce) It shouldn’t be increasing based on how much we know.
Est 25 million sport, exercise and recreation-related injuries in USA/year(Williams & Andersen, 2007)
Up to 50% of sports injuries are preventable (Finch)
The Stress-Injury Relationship
Attention disruption
Narrowing of attention = missing important cues: Easterbrook’s model
Increased muscle tension
Disrupts coordination. Residual tension in antagonist muscles
Emotional Responses
24% of injured athletes experience clinically meaningful levels of psychological distress (Brewer et al 2004) –Depression -> related to impaired immune function
Tracey (2003) suggests that athletes often respond to injury initially by underplaying its severity
The length of time an athlete spends in rehabilitation, it is suggested, depends on how they initially respond to being injured (Brewer, 2001)
Coping with Sports Injury
Coping strategies have been separated into three dimensions (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001)
a) problem-focused
b) emotion-focused
c) avoidance coping
Gould et al. (1997) interviewed elite US skiers with season ending injuries: they used the following coping strategies
1. Driving through – 91%, did things normally, determination
2. Distracted self – 81%, kept busy
3. Management of emotions and thoughts – 76%
4. Asked for social support – 57%
5. Avoidance and isolation – 14%
6. Focused on rehabilitation training – 14%
7. Other – 14%
Other Reactions
Identity loss – Personal identity ‘enmeshed’ in their sport/activity
Fear and anxiety – Worry about whether they will return, be replaced, contract?
Lack of confidence – Inability to practice and compete + reduced physical status = confidence
Performance decrements – Lowered confidence + missed practice/competition time = possible performance declines (inability to adjust performance expectations)
Positive Responses
Athletes report that they:
Became mentally tougher
Learned more about their own psychological limitations
Learned more empathy towards other athletes
Had more time to increase identity outside of sport: Self-complexity
Had more time to develop psychological skills training
Cognitive Appraisal Model of Psychological Adjustment to Injury Weise-Bjornstal et al., 1998
“State of the client’s personal and social lives, their interpretations of, and responses to, medical events are characterised by a wide variety of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that have a direct bearing on the susceptibility of injury and on the success of which they rehabilitate and recover.”
Psychological Interventions & Techniques
Surveys of athletic trainers (Larson et al. 1996)
More successful recover habits:
Complied better with rehab and treatment program
Had more positive attitude
Motivated
Determined
More knowledgeable about the injury
Facilitating Return to Play
(Carson & Polman, 2012)
Gaining confidence in the injured area appears to be crucial
Ensuring each player fully completed the rehabilitation program and the use of both clinical and sport specific tests
Significant gains in confidence are obtained by performance accomplishments
Coaches assisted by providing a specific, realistic goal setting program
Use of psychological skills (i.e., imagery; performance routines) may reduce anxiety and increase preparation for performance
Support networks should aim to reduce concerns and promote confidence
Learning Objectives
To discuss the role of psychological factors in injuries
To identify some of the psychological antecedents that predispose athletes/exercisers to injuries
To describe the Andersen and Williams model of stress and injury
To describe typical psychological reactions and adjustments to injuries
To discuss how psychological factors play a role in adherence to rehabilitation programs and assist the process of rehabilitation
Counselling & Communication in Sport and Exercise (W9)
Online Class #9
Exercise/fitness professionals -> increasingly play role of counsellor = need to master basic interpersonal and communication skills
Effectiveness of exercise/fitness professionals -> strongly related to interpersonal and communication skills (ie. just having knowledge = insufficient. Need to have EQ and communication in combination)
Without broader holistic focus of the client and their lifestyle adherence will be compromised/risk of ‘dropout’ will increase
Primary Dimensions of Counselling
1. Communication Skills
Verbal – human communication events via spoken (or written) words 35% of meaning of message
Nonverbal – human communication events that transcend spoken or written words (Knapp, 1978)
65% of meaning of message: Body language (~35%)
Kinesics (physical appearance, posture, gestures, touching, facial expression)
Proxemics (communication by way you use space)
Paralanguage (~30%): Vocal components of speech separate from actual words – eg. pitch, resonance, tempo, volume
Verbal and Nonverbal
Interconnected – Congruent or incongruent
Incongruent nonverbal = important -> something may be going on that client can’t express. Contradicting body language to what they’re verbally saying
Listening
Active listening -> make conscious effort to hear not only words person is saying but, more importantly, try to understand complete message being sent
Themes and patterns
Congruence/incongruence
Affect – feelings and emotions that accompany the content referred to as ‘affect’ measure accuracy of emotions
Activity Counselling Model (Griffin, 2006)
Step 1: Establish rapport
Be receptive and responsive • Outline the counselling process • Discuss the client’s reason for attending
Step 2: Gather information
Examine past, present, future • Identify needs, wants, and lifestyle • Determine barriers
Step 3: Work with stages of change
Understand stages of change • Determine the client’s stage of change • Match the client’s stage of change with an appropriate apprach
Motivational Interviewing
Purpose: Build motivational readiness
Collaborative, goal-oriented method of communication with attention to language of change
Recognises people at different stages of readiness to make changes and need to be helped differently, depending on which stage they’re at
Increases people’s awareness of difference between where they are and where they want to be to create vision for future and motivation to change
Step 4: Establish strategies for change
Select transtheoretical model stages • Maximise benefits from the client’s perspective • When goal setting, use measurable objectives • Developing self-efficacy
Ethical and Professional Issues
Ethical standards -> guidelines for professional conduct that direct decision making and provide values for member of profession (ESSA)
The GROW Model of Coaching
How Coaching Can Help People Re-Engage in PA?
1. Explore why they might engage in PA
2. Explore likes and dislikes about PA
3. Find out their activity history
4. Ask them what PA they would like to do rather than ‘Educate’ or ‘Tell’ them what they ‘Should’ be doing
5. Help client develop some realistic short-term goals and an action plan that they want to work with
6. Follow up with regular (weekly) support and help them develop their own resources
Learning Objectives
Describe the differences between the prescription approach and holistic approach within the exercise profession
Describe the process of counselling – including formal and informal counselling
Discuss the four dimensions of counselling
Describe the Integrated Problem Solving Model and Activity Counselling Model
Discuss the principles of coaching
Describe the GROW model of coaching
Burnout (W10)
Lecture #8 (18.5.17)
Periodised Training
Deliberate strategy of exposing athletes to high-volume and highintensity training loads, followed by lower load (rest or taper)
Overtraining
Short cycle of training when athletes expose themselves to excessive training loads near to maximum capacity
Negative Overtraining
Excessive, usually physical overload on athlete without adequate rest, resulting in decreased performance and inability to train
Staleness (American Term)
Physiological state of overtraining in which athlete has difficulty maintaining standard training regimes and can no longer achieve previous performance results . Often causes a plateau/decline in performance
Burnout
Psychophysiological response due to frequent efforts to meet excessive demands, involving a psychological, emotional, and sometimes physical withdrawal from an activity in response to stress or dissatisfaction
Symptoms: Exhaustion (physical and emotional) + Depersonalisation = don’t feel connected to the team/sport anymore + Feeling of low personal accomplishment, low self-esteem, failure, depression
Symptoms of Overtraining and Burnout
Decrement of performance capacity
Maladaption of many biological regulation mechanisms
Restoration of performance make take several months
Burnout has more severe psychological disturbances whereas overtraining has more physical symptoms
Causes
Inadequete recovery between sessions
Excesssive amounts of high intesnity training
Sudden increasees in training loads
Treatment
Rest
Changes in training routine
Reduction in training load
1. Negative Training Stress Response Model
Factors Leading to Athlete Burnout
Interaction of personal and situational variables
Evidence (Gould et al. 1996)
Burnout among competitive youth tennis players
Qualitative responses – categorised into themes
Physical concerns (eg. injury, overtraining …)
Logistical concerns (eg. travel, demands of time …)
Social/interpersonal concerns (eg. dissatisfaction with social life, negative parental influences/pressures …)
Psychological concerns (eg. unfulfilled/inappropriate expectations [rankings], realisation that professional career = unlikely…)
Preventing / Treating Burnout
Monitor critical states in athletes (stress levels, sources of stress, training volumes, recovery …) via Psychological tests
Set short-term goals for practice and competition
Relaxation breaks (time outs) – meditation
Learn self-regulation skills
Have positive outlook
Advice for Players, Coaches, and Parents
What the Coach Can Do To Avoid Players Burning Out
Cultivate personal involvement with player
Have two-way communication with player
Use player input
Understand players’ feelings
What the Parents Can Do To Avoid Players Burning Out
Recognise optimal amount of pushing
Show support and empathy; reduce importance of outcome
Involve player in decision-making
Back off and lessen involvement
Learning Objectives
To define overtraining, staleness and burnout
To describe four models proposed to explain burnout
To discuss the main factors proposed to cause burnout
To identify the symptoms of overtraining and burnout
To discuss the phenomenon of burnout among other professionals / practitioners working in sport
To describe strategies to prevent / treat burnout
Unhealthy Behaviours (W10)
Online Class #10
Defining Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
A psychobiological disease characterized by an intense fear of becoming obese, a disturbed body image, a significant weight loss, the refusal to maintain normal body weight, and amenorrhea.
Characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa
(American Psychological Association, 1994)
Weight loss to 15% below normal
Intense fear of gaining weight or being fat, despite being underweight
Disturbance in one’s experience of body weight, size, and shape
Females: absence of at least three consecutive expected menstrual cycles
Understanding Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia is potentially deadly; it can lead to starvation and other medical complications such as heart disease
Affected individuals don’t see themselves as abnormal
A complex, multidimensional disorder
Bulimia
An episodic eating pattern of uncontrollable food bingeing followed by purging, characterized by an awareness that the pattern is abnormal, fear of being unable to stop eating voluntarily, depressed mood, and self-deprecation.
Characteristics of Bulimia (APA, 1994)
Recurrent binge eating
A sense of lacking control over eating behavior during the binges
Engaging in regular self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics, strict dieting or fasting, or vigorous exercise in order to prevent weight gain
Average minimum of two binge-eating episodes a week for three months
Persistent over-concern with body shape and weight
Understanding Bulimia
Condition is severe but less severe than anorexia
Bulimia can lead to anorexia
Bulimic individuals are aware that they have a problem
Disordered Eating
Refers to spectrum of exaggerated eating patterns involving increased health risks. Often these are not severe enough to meet the diagnostic criteria of the DSM.
Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Sport
Difficult to assess prevalence among any popn group – especially difficult in sport as often concealed by athlete
Athletes appear to have greater occurrence of eating related problems (disordered eating) than general popn
F athletes, in general, report higher rates of eating disorders than M athletes (which is similar to rates for general popn)
Athletes and non-athletes have similar eating-related symptoms (similar psychological profiles)
Significant percentage of athletes engage in pathogenic eating or weight loss behaviors (eg., bingeing, fasting), although subclinical in intensity
Predisposing Factors
Weight restrictions and standards – Trying to make weight (eg. boxing, weightlifting …)
Coach/parent/peer/media pressure – Messages about weight, body shape/size
Sociocultural factors – Societal body and appearance ideals; body image
Performance demands – Correlation b/w low %BF and performance – But inter-individual variation
Judging criteria –Perceived bias towards particular body type/shape
Tips for Dealing with Eating Disorders
Do get help and advice from specialist
Do be supportive and empathetic
Do express concern about general feelings, not specifically about wt
Do make referrals to specific person/athlete
Do emphasize importance of long-term good nutrition
Do provide information about eating disorders
Don’t ask athlete to leave team or curtail participation, unless so instructed by a specialist
Don’t recommend wt loss or gain
Don’t hold team weigh-ins
Don’t single out or treat individual differently from others
Personality Disorders & Exercise
Compulsive Exercise/Exercise ‘addiction’/dependence
“A psychological and/or physiological dependence on a regular regimen of exercise that is characterised by withdrawal symptoms after 24-36 hrs without exercise” (Sachs, 1981)
Primary dependence -> engage in exercise as an end in itself
Secondary dependence -> engage in exercise to control body composition or shape/or achieve secondary outcome
Personality Disorders & Exercise
Negative When…
Doing same activity for prolonged period more than daily
Exercise becomes more important than other activities
Increased tolerance to amounts of exercise over long period
Relief of withdrawal symptoms by further exercise
Compulsion to exercise – may be unaware
Continuing to exercise despite illness or injury
Difficulties with partner, family, friends and/or work
Self-inflicted weight loss by dieting as means of improving performance
Comparing the above “negatives” to the habits of pro athletes/aspiring pro athletes and it’s interesting how similar the habits are. Sometimes it’s not negative.
Preventing Negative Addiction to Exercise
Schedule rest days
Work out regularly with slower partner
If you’re injured, stop exercising until healed
Train hard–easy: Mix in low intensity and less distance with days of harder training
If interested in health aspect, exercise three or four times/wk for 30 mins
Set realistic short- and long-term goals
Exerciser’s neurosis -> when ‘addicted’ exerciser can’t exercise
Poor adjustment to reduced physical capacity due to injury, illness or age
Irritability, guilt, shame, lowered self-esteem, interpersonal difficulties, negative mood states …
Mainly anxiety and reactive depression due to threat to physical well-being in people who overvalue health and fitness and have pride in their physical condition
No evidence to support similarities between compulsive exercisers and anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa sufferers
Atypical Anorexia
Don’t fit the criteria of either AN/BN but they’re at(healthy weight or overweight and adopt extreme (AN & BN) behaviours
Muscle Dysmorphia
Body dysmorphic disorder = diagnostically defined mental illness
Somatoform disorder marked by preoccupation with an imagined or trivial defect in appearance that causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other areas of functioning
Muscle Dysmorphia is a pathological preoccupation with the body as a whole
Perception of insufficient muscularity
Lives consumed by resistance training plus other exercise (primary) and nutrition (secondary) behaviours
Affects both genders – more common in men
Can even effect how you perceive the little things about your appearance, “feels nose is too big and it disrupts and alters their behaviour”
Muscle Dysmorphia – Possible Consequences
Profound distress about body being seen in public
Impaired social and work functioning
Anabolic steroid and other drug abuse
Like exercise dependence, it is rare but more prevalent in weight training fraternity
Bigorexia: reverse of anorexia nervosa
Substance Abuse
Results from a 1995 poll of US Olympians or aspiring Olympians from a range of sports
98% of elite athletes said they would take a banned performance-enhancing substance with two guarantees— they would not be caught and they would win
60% said they would do so even if it meant they would die from the side effects
Defining Substance Abuse
A maladaptive pattern of psychoactive substance use indicated by one of two patterns of use:
1. Continued use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurring social, occupational, psychological, or physical problem that are caused or exacerbated by use of the psychoactive substance; or recurrent use in situations in which use is physically hazardous (eg. driving)
2. Some symptoms of disturbance have persisted for at least one month or have occurred repeatedly over longer period.
Prevalence of Substance Abuse in Sports
Most studies focused on alcohol and steroid use
Alcohol Use
55% to 92% of high school athletes; 87% to 88% of US college athletes
2% AFL footballers drink at risky levels (c/f age-match sample of general popn = 15%) and use is highly seasonal
~37% of community Aust football, cricket and netball clubs players and members drank at risky level
Performance-enhancing drugs
Reported use by 5% of US high school and college athletes (40 to 60% among US elite athletes)
Recent Aust survey – use of performance and image enhancing drug use increased from 2% in 2010 to 7% in 2014
Steroid Use – USA (Gender)
Recent research reveals that young girls (as young as 9 yrs) are using bodybuilding steroids—not necessarily to get an edge on playing field but to get the toned, sculpted look of models and movie stars
Signs & Symptoms of Substance Abusers
Problem & Compulsive Gambling
All patterns of gambling behaviour that compromise, disrupt, or damage personal, family or vocational pursuits
A level of gambling that brings problems and/or pain to the gambler and/or his/her family
Pathological (compulsive) Gambling
A progressive disorder in which an individual has a psychologically uncontrollable urge to gamble. This results in excessive gambling, the outcome of which is the loss of time and money. It compromises, disrupts or destroys the gambler’s personal, family and vocational life (Franklin, 2000)
Prevalence of Gambling in Sport
72% of US NCAA Division I football and basketball athletes engage in some form of gambling
12% m and 3% f US college athletes have problematic / pathological gambling problems
6% – 8% of US college students are compulsive gamblers
2003 US NCAA study showed 35% m athletes and 10% f athletes bet on college sports
In 2009, 70% of Australians participated in some form of gambling
Estimated, half million Australians are at risk or are problem gamblers
Learning Objectives
To define and discuss the prevalence of eating disorders and disordered eating in sport
To describe the predisposing factors for developing an eating disorder
To define exercise dependence/compulsive exercise and discuss positive and negative exercise addiction
To discuss the issue of bigorexia
To define and discuss the prevalence of substance misuse in sport
To define compulsive gambling and discuss this within the context of sport
Transitions in Sport (W11)
Online Class #11
Levy et al. (2000) suggest transitions occur at cross‐sections of age, athletic mastery level, psychosocial factors, and educational / career development
Career
“A sequence of positions held during the course of a lifetime, some of them simultaneously” (Super et al., 1957)
Carrus (latin) = cart or chariot
Cararia (road) -> carriere -> career
Something that carries us across our life
Types of Career Transitions
Voluntary: Personal / Free Choice / Social / Psychological
Involuntary: Injury Age / Deselection
Psychological Reactions
Significant negative reactions and emotions are experienced (Lavallee et al., 2000)
The major concerns for athletes are: Financial / occupational adjustment ◦ Emotional adjustment ◦ Social adjustment
Career Termination
Career termination / retirement is often an abrupt negative experience (Alfermann, 2000)
May be conceptualized as a complex interaction of stressors (Ogilive and Taylor, 1993)
Athletes may experience a sense of loss of self identity after career termination
Adjustment to post‐career life
Better adjustment takes place when athletes (Alfermann, 2000):
Retire voluntarily
Made plans for life after sport
Can identify with not being an athlete
Have a strong social support network
Developmental Psychological Perspective
Donald Super (1990) depicts a career as:
“…the life course of a person encountering a series of developmental tasks and attempting to handle them in such a way as to become the kind of person he or she wants to be” (p. 213)
Development of the “self” essential for career success. Self -> person’s essential being that distinguishes them from others
Stages of Career Development
One’s vocation is a major part of “self”
Careers cycle and re‐cycle as the “self” changes and develops along the life span
Stages of career development
Growth -> Exploration – heart of career decision making -> Crystallizing, specifying, implementing -> Establishment ◦ where you gain work experience -> Maintenance – stability = primary objective -> Disengagement (retirement)
Career Transitions
Career transition = “An event or non‐event resulting in a change in assumptions about oneself and the world, thus requiring a change in one’s behaviour and relationships” (Schlossberg, 1981, p.5)
Career Transitions In Sport
Turning points/phases in individual/athlete’s development
Subjectively, associated with stress and uncertainty about whether situation will change for better or for worse
Come with new set of demands and require additional resources to adjust/cope
Transitions come with new demands (related to practice, competition, communication, lifestyle …) – if athlete wants to be successful – they have to cope with new demands
2 Types Of Transitions
Normative: generally predictable and anticipated
Non‐normative: hard to predict, often occur involuntarily
Situation‐related and specific events for individual athlete -> events such as injuries, loss of coach, change of team, deselection/delisting …
Also include specific non‐events (expected/hoped for making the team but didn’t occur) -> non‐events such as not able to participate in major tournaments, non‐selection, non‐drafting
“Post career is like losing someone close to you and grieving over them”
Social Gerontology Theories
Proposed to explain observed occupational and psychological adjustment problems after retirement
1. Disengagement theory
Society and ageing individual withdraw from one another to mutual benefit and satisfaction of both
2. Social breakdown theory
With any role loss individuals become susceptible to external labeling (eg. “hero to zero”) and if this is unfavorable then will tend to withdraw
3. Exchange theory
Successful ageing can be achieved through rearrangement of social networks and activities
Thanatological Models
Concept of ‘social death’ used to explain the social and psychological changes involved in retirement.
Concept of social death used to explain the social and psychol“Social death” -> condition of being treated as if one were dead while still physiologically and intellectually alivegical changes involved in retirement
1. Awareness Context (4 types)
Closed: athlete is unaware of plans to cut/release/trade
Suspicion: athlete suspects demotion/release is imminent from subtle changes in communication (non‐verbal) with coach/management
Mutual pretence: all concerned with athlete know – regardless of athlete’s current performance – that career is near end
Open: both athlete and others know that career end is inevitable and this is openly acknowledged
2. Stages of Dying
Certain reactions/coping mechanisms used by terminal patients to deal with impending death
Denial -> Anger -> Bargaining -> Depression -> Acceptance
Career Transition Models
Descriptive CT models focus on stages and transitions across the athletic life span using a holistic development approach
Explanatory CT models don’t view retirement as singular event but rather a process
Career Transitions – Descriptive Models
(Developmental Model on Athlete Transitions)
Whole person or ‘whole career’ (life‐span) approach
Help to understand the athlete’s demands and transitions within sport context and outside of sport
Career Transitions ‐ Explanatory Models
(Model of Human Adaptation, Schlossberg, 1981)
Multi Dimensional Model
Process where three sets of factors interact:
1) Characteristics of individual – such as psychosocial competence, gender, age, health status, ethnicity, social economic status
2) Individual’s perception of transition – such as role change, affect, source, onset, duration and degree of stress
3) Characteristics of pre‐transition and post‐transition environments ‐ such as support systems (internal and social), institutional support and physical setting
Quality of Career Transitions
Preventing Transition Distress
Primary Prevention Model
Preventing problems before they occur
Encouraging more holistic approach: Less emphasis on success/winning (outcome); more on personal growth and self‐development (mastery)
Prevention‐oriented programs: Identification of ‘at‐risk’ individuals + Vocational guidance, financial planning
Career Transitions in Australia
Professional sport
AFL players who had terminated their careers voluntarily experienced more positive transitions than those whose careers ended involuntarily (Fortunato, Anderson, Morris, & Seedsman,1995)
Elite Amateur Sport
Involuntary career termination was related to significantly greater emotional and social adjustment
Those who experienced greatest adjustment difficulties also perceived the least personal control over their reasons for retirement (Lavallee, Gordon, & Grove, 1997)
Life development intervention = better career transition adjustment
ACE Program -> more stable mood and better (self‐reported)performances (Anderson, 1998)
Career Termination & Adaptation
Four main causes for career termination (Taylor & Ogilvie, 2001):
Age ◦ Deselection -> US model of professional sport ◦ Injury -> forced career termination ◦ Free choice
Quality of post‐sporting adaptation dependant upon:
Voluntary termination ◦ Planning ◦ Athletic identity ◦ Resources
Athletic Identity & Termination
High athletic identity consistent with pursuing sporting career
Low athletic identity inconsistent and may contribute to career termination
Athlete with strong athletic identities experience difficulties with career adjustments (e.g., injury, de‐selection; Brewer, 1993)
Life Development Interventions
The basic idea is to teach the necessary skills to help cope with critical life events
Before the event: ◦ Helping anticipate life events ◦ Transfer of skills from one domain to another ◦ Teaching skills to cope with future events
During Occurrence: ◦ Supportive strategies – social support networks
After Occurrence: ◦ Counselling strategies – psychological recovery
Summary
Retirement/transitions from sport are characterised by positive or negative adjustment
Career Transition Models best explain the processes that determine how different adjustments may emerge
Different programs exist to assist with athlete/coach retirement/transitions
Primary prevention programs – cost effective and provide for healthier transitions. Tertiary treatment approaches – also necessary
Unit Overview (W11)
Lecture #9 25.5.17
Stream 1: Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology
Defining Sport & Exercise Psychology
The scientific study of people and their behaviour in sport and exercise contexts.
2 Main Objectives
Sport Psychology: 1. To determine how psychological principles affects sport/exercise performance
Exercise Psychology: 2. To determine how sport/exercise participation affects psychological development, health and well being.
Academic vs applied sport psychology
Educational = usually works with teams to improve performance and emjoyment < ‐‐‐‐ > Clinical = looks at underlying mental issues that can cause an athlete grief
Psychological skills training
Evidence-based discipline
Training pathway in Australia is different to the US/UK make sure you understand what the training pathway is.
Typically 4 + 2 years of training and supervised practice • Studies in psychology E&SS
Motivation
What is motivation?
“The direction and intensity of effort”
Views Of Motivation
Trait Centered View: ‘How we are in everyday life’. As a result of the values and characteristics of the individual.
Situation Centered View: ‘The superficial’ – meaning the motivation is determined by the surrounding environment.
Interactional View: A combination of the situation and inner traits.
Theories of Achievement Motivation
Need Achievement Theory
Need Achievement Theory: Personality
The motivation to achieve success. (MS) = High Achievers usually are high in MS and low in MAF.
The motivation to avoid failure. (MAF) = Low Achievers usually are low MS and high in MAF.
Need Achievement Theory: Situation
Probability of success depends on competition and difficulty of task.
High Achievers = usually compete when there’s a 50/50 chance of winning.
Low Achievers = usually avoid competing when there’s a 50/50 chance of winning. They would rather opt for the task they are certain they can succeed in or the task they are certain they will fail in.
Achievement Goal Theory
3 Factors determine a person’s motivation: Achievement goals/Perceived ability/Achievement behaviour
1. Achievement goals – Outcome / Competitive / Ego Goal Orientation
Concerned with demonstrating ability: Focus on social comparison + Dependent on subjective assessment (outcome – win/loss)
1. Achievement goals – Task / Mastery / Performance Goal Orientation
Concerned with learning / mastery – Perceptions of ability are self-referenced + Improvements relative to past performance
* Independent orientations = Can have both – but usually higher in one orientation
2. Perceived ability
High (HPA) OR Low (LPA) can determine your motivation
3. Achievement behaviour
Adaptive = Adjusting to the situation appropriately
Maladaptive = not adjusting to the situation
Attribution Theory
How people explain/attribute their successes and failures.
When a person has success, what do they attribute that success to? Something they did themselves or something that happened to them that was external.
Attribution theory is important because it explains how people’s perceptions can influence their expectations and reasons behind why an event occurred consequently effecting their achievement motivation.
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation = the drive within ourselves to engage in activity
Extrinsic motivation = the drive of external factors to engage in activity
Rewards
Extrinsic rewards can either add to/detract from IM it depends on the perception of causality (ie. perceived cause of behaviour)
IM can be decreased by participating in an activity you would usually find interesting in order to receive an extrinsic reward.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Sub-theory of broader self-determination theory (SDT)
Rewards have two functions
Controlling
Locus of causality
Internal -> Perceive actions initiated by self
External -> Perceive actions initiated by others
Informational
Increase feelings of competence
Decrease feelings of competence
Self Determination Theory
Innate need to feel competent and self-determining
Enhancing Motivation
Both situations and traits influence motivation
Goal orientations
People have different motives (goals) for participation -> Understand why people participate -> Encourage a task orientation and task oriented climate (self-referenced ability) instead of outcome dependent
Provide feedback contingent on performance – information about competence -> Feedback – positive feedback tends to increase IM
Personality & Sport
Trait approach
Relatively stable/enduring characteristics which can be used to predict behaviour. Traits predispose an athlete to act in a particular way (but not guarantee it).
Trait approach is often too simplistic, knowing an individuals personality traits doesn’t help us to predict whether they will act on those traits – doesn’t take into account the context.
Situational approach
Personality is built up of our experiences of the social world. Person responds in a particular way in that situation.
Interactional approach
B = F (P.E) ‘Behaviour is the function of personality and environment.
Personality traits and environment independently determine behaviour BUT also interact to determine human behaviour much more accurately than traits or situations alone.
How We Measure Personality
Projective tests: Used to identify motives or the deeper aspects of personality/motives.
Trait/state measures (Questionnaire): Clinical vs nonclinical. Typically have true/false or scaling type questions.
Assessing cognitive strategies and skills to see what strategies people are using to improve their performance
Arousal, Anxiety & Stress
Anxiety = Multidimensional measure
A negative emotional state associated with feelings of nervousness, worry, IN HR.
Anxiety has a thought component – cognitive anxiety (worry & apprehension)
and a physiological component – somatic anxiety (perceived physical activation)
Emotional
State & Trait anxiety
Trait Anxiety
A persons general activation level. How you normally are.
State Anxiety
Changing mood depending on situation/environment.
Stress = We have to look at the sequence of events (Person x Situation)
A substantial imbalance between demand (physiological/psychological) and response capability under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences.
Appraisal (ability v demand)
Perc’d importance
Stream 2: Improving Performance
Awareness / Needs assessment
Performance Profiling: working out KPI’s and judging where the athlete may fit between what a coach needs. Tells the athlete whether their on track.
Inventories: Questionnaire to figure out peoples strengths and weaknesses.
Interview
Observation
Psychological skills training
Contrast between skills and abilities
Psychological Skills
Athlete awareness
Goal setting
Arousal control
Positive thought
control
Attentional focus
Imagery training
Mental rehearsal
Relaxation techniques
Competition routines
Cognitive restructuring
Time/stress managem’t
Injury recovery
Team building
Communication skills
Imagery
Incorporate as many senses as possible to vividly place them in the moment
Experience
Sensory
Emotional
Physical/motor
Theories
Psycho‐neuromuscular theory
Imagery facilitates neuromuscular activity patterns similar to actual performance (strengthens neural pathways making it more likely to occur in actual performance when we need it).
Symbolic learning theory
Imagery symbolises movements in brain (Sackett, 1934) – Imagery helps create/consolidate mental map or blueprint of movements needed. Rehearsing in our head to help build memory pathways. Stronger effects for imagery on cognitive tasks than motor tasks.
Psychological state hypothesis
Imagery has general rather than specific effect and effect is on athlete’s preparation for task performance
Bio‐informational theory
Image = functionally organised set of propositions stored by brain
Functional equivalence theory
Motor imagery and motor preparation are functionally equivalent
Qualities
Vividness
Controllability
Multi‐sensory
Internal/external
Real‐time/slow motion
Uses in sport
Arousal control, focus, confidence, cues, mental practice
PETTLEP framework
Is a cognitive neuroscience model to guide how imagery should be implemented.
Arousal/Anxiety Regulation Techniques
Matching Hypothesis
Progressive Muscle Relxation: Tensing/Relaxing muscle groups
Breath Control
Biofeedback: Involves electronic device that provides visual/auditory feedback of physiological responses.
Autogenic Training: A series of exercises to produce sensations. 6 Hierarchical Stages: 1. Heaviness in the extremities. (‘my right arm is heavy’) 2. Warmth in the extremities. 3. Regulation of heart rate. 4. Regulation of breathing. 5. Abdominal warmth. 6. Cooling of the forehead.
Relaxation Response
Systematic Desensitization: Anxious people have a learned response (think classical conditioning) to have excessively high levels of anxiety (IN autonomic response) in response to particular situations. E.G. Phobias. It’s about trying to unlearn this response and replace the nervous activity with a coping behaviour.
Multimodal Anxiety – Reduction Packages: 5 phases of cognitive-affective stress management training: 1. Pre-treatment phase (assess skills and deficits of an athlete in terms of anxiety management) 2. Identify treatment rationale phase 3. Skill acquisition (training in muscular relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and self-instruction) 4. Skill rehearsal 5. Post training evaluation
Types of Coping
Problem-focused coping
Develop soltutions/strategies to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (e.g., time management, problem solving)
Emotion-focused coping
Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (e.g., through relaxation, meditation)
Seeking social support coping:
Occurs when one turns to others for assistance and emotional support in times of stress.
Arousal Inducing Techniques: Mood words / Music / Yelling
Concentration / Attention
Attributes of Attention
Selectivity: Selectively attending
Capacity: Depending on stress and where your cognitive resources are being spent
Alertness
Dimensions
Direction (internal/external)
Width (broad/narrow) ‐ eg. different sports
Ability to shift
Attentional Errors
Mismatch the info you think you need with what you actually do need
Inability (to adapt/maintain focus)
Overload (internal/external) to focus
Choking
Attentional Focus
Attentional Training
Sport‐related: Routines / Biofeedback / Imagery / Overlearning (automate) / Cue training (video‐based)
Self-Confidence
Defining self-confidence
Self‐confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior
Trait & State
Dispositional self‐confidence is the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed.
State self‐confidence is the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed.
Measurement: Questionnaires
Benefits of self-confidence
1. Arouses positive emotions 2. Facilitates concentration 3. Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals 4. Increases effort 5. Affects game strategies (play to win vs. play to lose) 6. Affects psychological momentum 7. Affects performance
Optimal level of self-confidence
Convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so. There’s an intensity of effort to pursue goals + paying attention to the right cues.
Stream 3: Group Processes
Team vs Group
Team is a special type of group defined by 4 characteristics:
1. Collective sense of identity (“we” rather than “I”)
2. Distinctive roles (all members know their job)
3. Structured modes of communication
4. Norms (social rules that guide members on what to do/not do)
Group = 2 or more people who interact and exert mutual influence on each other
3 PERSPECTIVES OF FORMING A TEAM (PROBABLY BE ON EXAM)
- Forming (acts as individuals/lack of clarity of roles) Storming (conflict arises) -> Norming (clarity about roles) -> Performing (clear strategy/vision + operate autonomously)
2. Life Cycle / Cyclical Perspective
Birth -> Growth -> Death
Relevant for groups that have a timeline on them (10-15 weeks)
3. Pendular Perspective
Orientation -> Conflict -> Cohesion -> Conflict -> Termination (if season was success cohesion is high)
Team Interactions
To be an effective team group roles need to be identified.
Roles
Formal Roles: Dictated by nature and structure of organization. Each role has specific expectations and individuals are either recruited or trained to fill the specific roles (eg. Coach, instructor, captain, defender)
Informal Roles: Generally develop as interactions among team members evolve. E.G. 12 informal roles identified: The enforcer (contact sports) Mediator. Team clown. Social convener.
Norms
Group Norms: A norm around the level of performance or values of the team
Individuals and the Team
Steiner’s Model
Relationship between individual abilities/resources on team and how team member’s interact.
Actual productivity = Potential productivity ‐ Losses due to faulty group processes (e.g. lack of team cohesion)
Implies that actual productivity will not match potential productivity unless all available resources are used to match demands of the task
Ringelman Effect
Individual performance decreases as number of people in group increases due to a decrease in motivation rather than coordination.
The greater the need for cooperation and interaction in a task, the more the importance of individual ability decreases and the importance of group productivity increases
Social Loafing
When individuals in a team put forth less than 100% effort
Reducing loafing
Emphasize the importance of individual pride and unique contributions.
Increase identifiability of individual performances so people are accountable.
Determine specific situations in which social loafing occurs and having strategies in place for that.
Conduct individual meetings to discuss social loafing.
Appreciate each teammate’s responsibilities by assigning players to other positions.
Divide the team into smaller units.
Team Cohesion
Task cohesion & social cohesion
Task cohesion: degree to which members of a team work together to achieve a goal
Social cohesion: degree to which members of a team get personal satisfaction from being members of that team
Don’t have to have high social cohesion to have high task cohesion and perform. Though high social cohesion won’t really help when there’s and low task cohesion for winning.
TWO DISTINCT FORCES ACT ON MEMBERS TO REMAIN IN GROUP:
Attractiveness of group and means control (benefits of being associated with group)
Measuring cohesion: Questionnaires + Sociogram + GEQ
Carron’s conceptual model of cohesion
Cohesion and performance depend on various factors and it’s cyclical in nature = as team performance improves team cohesion improves
Leadership
What is leadership?
“the behavioural process influencing individuals and groups toward set goals” Barrow (1977)
Manager vs leader
Manager = planning/organizing | Leader = vision/direction/motivation
Prescribed vs emergent
Prescribed leaders are given the role by authority.
Emergent leaders earn the role and respect is somewhat already established.
Leadership theory
Trait theory
Great leaders have personality traits/characteristics that make them ideally suited for leadership “Leaders are born”
Behavior theory
Successful leaders had certain universal behaviours. Once these behaviours were identified – then they could be taught to potential leaders everywhere. “Leaders are made, not born.”
Contingency theory
Leadership effectiveness is situation specific ‐ effectiveness of group is contingent on relationship between leadership style (personality traits) and degree to which situation enables leader to exert influence
Multidimensional model
Leader effectiveness in sport will vary depending on the characteristics of the athletes and constraints of the situation.
Leadership Styles
DEMOCRATIC
Athlete‐centered, task oriented, flexible, cooperative, relationship oriented
AUTOCRATIC
Outcome oriented, often confrontational, very structured, inflexible, often feared by athletes
TRANSACTIONAL
Trading rewards and/or punishments for athlete behaviours/performance (play well this week – light training next week bargaining style)
TRANSFORMATIONAL
Builds trust, inspires others, encourages innovation, acts with integrity
Effective leadership
4 components: situational factors + leaders qualities + followers qualities + leadership styles
Stream 4: Exercise Psychology
Psychological Effects of Exercise
Treatment v Prevention
Exercise/PA -> depression, life stress, increased mood, increased quality of life, wellbeing
Mechanisms were both psychological/physical
Motives for exercising / not exercising
Barriers (individual v environmental)
LACK OF: Time: 69% / Energy: 59% / Motivation: 52%
Theories of exercise behaviour
Health belief model
LIKELIHOOD OF INDIVIDUAL ENGAGING IN HEALTH BEHAVIOUR DEPENDS ON: Perceived susceptibility and severity of ill health and perceived severity of bad outcome from not exercising
Transtheoretical model
Changing one’s behaviour is a process, not an event. Pre-contemplation -> contemplation -> preparation -> action -> maintenance
Socio‐ecological model
Other influences may include demographic and biological factors + cognitive and behavioural characteristics/skills
Exercise/Activity Strategies
Behavioral modification strategies = a prompt cue that initiates behaviour
Reinforcement strategies = Positive or negative reinforcement determines future action E.G. charting public performance/attendance
Cognitive behavioral strategies =
Decisional balance -> awareness of potential benefits and costs of exercise program
Goal setting -> useful technique to improve exercise behaviour and adherence
Association vs Dissociation -> focus on internal body feedback vs focus on external environment like music or coaches cueing
Interventions
Individual level: counselling
Group level: School programs
Community: 10,000 steps
Counselling & Communication
Primary dimensions of counselling:
1. Communication skills
Verbal:
Non-Verbal: Incongruent nonverbal = important -> something may be going on that client can’t express. Contradicting body language to what they’re verbally saying
Kinesics: non‐verbal communication = posture/gestures
Proxemics: the amount of space that people feel it necessary to set between themselves and others.
Paralanguage: Speech that is separate from actual words (pitch/resonance/tempo)
Active listening: Understand complete message
Questions
2. Characteristics of effective helpers
Self‐awareness, Flexibility, Trustworthiness …
3. Helping models
Activity Counselling Model
1.Establish rapport -> 2. Gather info -> 3. Work with stages of change
Transtheoretical Model
Pre-contemplation -> contemplation -> preparation -> action -> maintenance
Motivational Interviewing
Purpose: Build motivational readiness
Collaborative, goal-oriented method of communication with attention to language of change
GROW Model
4. Ethical and Professional issues
Ethical standards -> guidelines for professional conduct that direct decision making and provide values for member of profession (ESSA)
Stream 5: Issues in Sport & Exercise
Psychological Aspects of Injuries
Andersen & Williams model (stress response)
Response to Injury
Grief process (stages)
Typical psychological reactions
-Denial
-Anger
-Bargaining
-Depression
-Acceptance and reorganization
Cognitive appraisal model
Emotions & Behaviours
Factors & Rate of Recovery
Psychological techniques to promote adherence
Adherence to treatment protocols
Self-motivation (Brewer et al. 2000)
Goal-setting and positive self-talk (Scherzeret al. 2001)
Psychological techniques to enhance recovery:
imagery, PPR’s exercise, Coaches assisted by providing a specific, realistic goal setting program, Support networks should aim to reduce concerns and promote confidence
Unhealthy Behaviours
Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa: Intense fear of gaining weight or being fat, despite being underweight
Bulimia nervosa: episodic eating pattern of uncontrollable food bingeing followed by purging
Disordered eating: Refers to spectrum of exaggerated eating patterns involving increased health risks.
Substance Abuse
Alcohol
Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs
Reasons why athletes / exercisers use drugs: coach/social/media pressure + sociocultural factors = body image + performance demands
Exercise Dependence
Positive ‘addiction’
Negative ‘addiction: who may develop a compulsion to exercise excessively and who may, as a consequence, display physiological and psychological changes that have a direct influence on their quality of life.
Preventing Negative Addiction to Exercise: Schedule rest days + set realistic short and long term goals
Gambling in Sport
Problem gambling
Pathological (compulsive) gambling
All patterns of gambling behaviour that compromise, disrupt, or damage personal, family or vocational pursuits
A progressive disorder in which an individual has a psychologically uncontrollable urge to gamble. This results in excessive gambling, the outcome of which is the loss of time and money. It compromises, disrupts or destroys the gambler’s personal, family and vocational life (Franklin, 2000)
Characteristics and signs of compulsive gambling
Changes in behavior (lack of motivation/tardiness), changes in peer group, major change in personality, apathetic, muscle twitches/tremors
Burnout & Overtraining
Overtraining
Short cycle of training when athletes expose themselves to excessive training loads near to maximum capacity.
Negative overtraining: usually physical overload on athlete without adequate rest, resulting in decreased performance and inability to train
Staleness
difficulty maintaining standard training regimes and can no longer achieve previous performance results .
Burnout
Psychophysiological response due to frequent efforts to meet excessive demands, involving a psychological, emotional, and sometimes physical withdrawal from an activity in response to stress or dissatisfaction. =
Maladaption of many biological regulation mechanisms. E.G. Sleep distrubence, substance abuse, mood changes, lower self esteem, emotional isolation, increased anxiety.
Burnout usually has severe psychological symptoms whereas overtraining/staleness comprises of mainly adverse physiological disruptions
Stress‐based Models
Investment Model
When the rewards/costs/satisfaction/investment/alternatives are either high or low they can = enthusiasm or burnout and widhdrawl
Empowerment Model
Desire to develop identity seperate from sport not realised + desire to feel personal control over life not realised can = burnout.
Factors leading to burnout (personal & situational)
Interaction of personal and situational variables =
Physical concerns (eg. injury, overtraining …)
Logistical concerns (eg. travel, demands of time …)
Social/interpersonal concerns (eg. dissatisfaction with social life, negative parental influences/pressures …)
Psychological concerns (eg. unfulfilled/inappropriate expectations [rankings], realisation that professional career = unlikely…)
Transitions in Sport
2 TYPES OF TRANSITIONS
Normative: generally predictable and anticipated
Non‐normative: hard to predict, often occur involuntarily
Career theory
Career transition models
Descriptive CT models focus on stages and transitions across the athletic life span using a holistic development approach
Explanatory CT models don’t view retirement as singular event but rather a process
MULTI DIMENSIONAL MODEL
Process where three sets of factors interact:
1) Characteristics of individual – such as psychosocial competence, gender, age, health status, ethnicity, social economic status
2) Individual’s perception of transition – such as role change, affect, source, onset, duration and degree of stress
3) Characteristics of pre‐transition and post‐transition environments ‐ such as support systems (internal and social), institutional support and physical setting
PREVENTING TRANSITION DISTRESS
Preventing problems before they occur
Encouraging more holistic approach: Less emphasis on success/winning (outcome); more on personal growth and self‐development (mastery)
Prevention‐oriented programs: Identification of ‘at‐risk’ individuals + Vocational guidance, financial planning
Factors affecting transition: Social supports, coping resources, self‐identity
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